Racial Problems: Americans are a nation of immigrants. Their ancestors are from many different parts of the world. Some came in search of a better life, whilst others were sent to America as slaves. Because there are so many different cultures and religions in America the result is sometimes conflict. There have been many periods of violence due to racial discrimination. The main violence is against the black American population.

Although legal segregation was ended in the 1960's there still exists a segregation in many areas through choice, housing is especially segregated. Many black people live in black only neighbourhoods, and do not mix with white Americans. Black neighbourhoods are sometimes referred to as "Ghettos".

Poverty: America is generally known as a rich country, however about 1 in every 10 Americans lives below the national poverty line. This means that they live on incomes that the government considers too low to buy food, clothes, shelter etc. Many different groups of society live in poverty, sometimes young people, sometimes old people. Poverty leads to crime such as stealing and also leads to the spread of disease. the distribution of money in America is not equal - some people have great wealth, whilst others struggle to live.

Crime: The main social problem in America is Crime. Violent crime rises every year, with most people afraid to leave their homes in the dark, especially in big cities. Many Americans own, and carry, guns for their own protection (this is legal in America). The majority of crime is by young men, with many more black men being arrested than white.

Drugs: The problem of drug abuse grows every year. There is a strong link between drugs and crime. Alcohol and drugs are responsible for many deaths on American roads, with drivers who are drunk or taking drugs. The drug problem began in the 1960's with "social drugs", but more recently has grown into the use of strong drugs. The strong drug users also spread disease through dirty needles, especially HIV / AIDS - a big problem in America. the drug problem costs the government a lot of money - because of crime, court cases, hospital treatment etc.

President Bush Announces Drug Control Strategy: An effective strategy to combat illegal drug use in the United States is a top priority for the White House, says President Bush, because drugs "constitute a huge challenge to the very health of our nation."

Bush, unveiling his administration's national drug control strategy for 2002, spoke in Washington on February 12th about the dangers of illicit drugs and the urgent need to reduce demand for drugs within the United States while also attacking the supply of drugs from source countries. 

The goals of his new drug control strategy are "to limit drug supply, to reduce demand and to provide addicts with effective and compassionate drug treatment," Bush said. "These steps must be funded, which is why the budget I submitted to Congress calls for $19 billion to fight drug use."

• Introduction - The United States of America, The Beginnings, The States, People

• The Political System - Presidents, Government Structure etc.

• American Economy - Currency, Economic History, Policies etc.

• Trade - International Trade and Foreign Policy

• Religion - Catholic, Protestants, Religious Diversity, Cults, Sects etc.

• American Education - High School, College, University etc.

• American Literature - Writers, Novels, Poets etc.

• Holidays and Festivals - Independence Day, Thanksgiving etc.

• Social Movements of the 1960's - Civil Rights, Anti-War, Women's Rights etc.

• American Social Problems - Racial Problems, Drugs etc.

• Food and Drink - American Meals

• American Sport - Baseball, Baseball, American Football etc.

• Transport - How to Travel in America, Airplanes, Trains, Roads

• American Music - Jazz, Country, Rock etc.

• American Movies - History of the Movies, Hollywood etc.

• American Media - Television, Radio, Newspapers etc.

• American Business - Business Organisations, Stocks, Farming etc.

• American Retailing - Shopping in the USA

• Scenic America - Landscape and Buildings

• American Society - Housing, Weddings, Family Life

Geography Number of states: 50, Population (Based on Census 2000 data):

Total Resident Population 281,421,906
Males: 138,053,563 (49.1% of pop.)
Females: 143,368,343 (50.9% of pop.)
White: 211,460,626 (75.1% of pop.)
Black: 34,658,190 (12.3% of pop.) 
Asian: 10,242,998 (3.6% of pop.)
American Indian and Alaska Native: 2,475,956 (0.9% of pop.)
Hispanic/Latino2: 35,305,818 (12.5% of pop.)
Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander: 398,835 (0.1% of pop.)

The American Flag: The first official national flag, also known as the Stars and Stripes, or Old Glory, was approved by the Continental Congress on June 14, 1777. The blue canton contained 13 stars, representing the original 13 colonies, but the layout varied.

After Vermont and Kentucky were admitted to the Union in 1791 and 1792, respectively, two more stars and two more stripes were added in 1795. This 15-star, 15-stripe flag was the “star-spangled banner” that inspired lawyer Francis Scott Key to write the poem that later became the U.S. national anthem.

In 1818, after five more states had gained admittance, Congress passed legislation fixing the number of stripes at 13 and requiring that the number of stars equal the number of states. The last new star, bringing the total to 50, was added on July 4, 1960, after Hawaii became a state.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNITED STATES: When Christopher Columbus travelled to America in 1492 there was a population of about 10-20 million, mainly from Asia, Europe and Africa, these people were given the name American Indians. 

In 1497 an Italian sailor, John Cabot, who was at the service of the English King, sailed to the are now called Canada, the English King then claimed the North Americas, were British settlements were established in the 17th century. There were 13 English colonies in what is now North America.

In 1775 the American War of Independence began which divided up the colonies into independent states. The War of Independence ended in 1781 when Britain recognised the independence of the United States and the Peace Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783.

"CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES": The peace treaty of 1783 recognised the independence of the United States and established the individual states. Once the states were established it was unclear about the relationship between each of the states, therefore a constitution was needed.

After the War of Independence the United States was not one nation, each state had its own government, with its own laws and policies. A plan was then drawn up called the "Constitution of the United States." This proposed an elected leader or president, it also proposed a central system for making laws and court systems. The constitution did not have any reference to the freedoms or basic rights of citizens, therefore in 1791 a "Bill of Rights" was added to the constitution. The government which was formed was divided up into three parts. The Executive, Legislative and Judical. 

LEGISLATIVE BRANCH: The Legislative branch is made up of elected representatives from each of the states. It makes federal laws and taxes and is the only branch of government which can declare war or put foreign treaties into effect. It consists of a "Congress" which is made up of two houses:

The House of Representatives: This is made up of lawmakers who serve for 2 years. Each member represents their home district from their state. The number of districts in a state depends on the population.

The Senate: This is made up of lawmakers who serve for 6 years. Each state has two senators. Every 2 years one third of the Senate are re-elected, therefore there are always experienced senators working in government.

The main duty of Congress is to make laws. A law begins with a proposal, called a "Bill", it is then studied in committees, then amended in the Senate or House chamber in which it was introduced. It is then voted upon, if it passes it is then sent to another house where the same process takes place. When both houses of Congress pass the Bill it is sent to the president for signature, once signed it becomes law.

EXECUTIVE BRANCH: The chief executive of the United States is the president. Every four years there is an election for the president and vice president. Under an amendment to the Constitution in 1951, a president can only be elected for two terms. The job of president allows the formulation of public policy, allows a vito of bills, can appoint judges, has powers to issue regulations and directives regarding the work of the federal governments departments and the president is also the commander of the armed forces.

JUDICIAL BRANCH: The head of the Judicial branch is the Supreme Court, which is the only court created by the Constitution. Congress has established 11 federal courts of appeal and 91 district federal courts. Federal judges are appointed for life or voluntary retirement, and can only be removed from the office through the process of impeachment and trial in the Congress.

THE BILL OF RIGHTS (1791): This is made up of 10 short paragraphs which guarantee freedom and individual rights to all Americans. In the Bill of Rights, Americans have the right to freedom of religion, freedom of speech and freedom of the press (media). They have the right to assemble in public places, to protest government actions and demand changes. They have the right to own weapons. The Bill of Rights also guarantees a quick trial for any crimes.

POLITICAL PARTIES: The United States have two main political parties, the Democratic party and the Republican party. The Democratic party was established before 1800 and now uses the donkey as its symbol. The Republican party was formed in 1850 and uses the symbol of an elephant.

THE ECONOMY: Monetary policy is the responsibility of the Federal Reserve System, an independent U.S. government agency. "The Fed," as it is commonly known, includes 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks and 25 Federal Reserve Bank branches.

Money takes many different forms, in its most basic form, money consists of coins and paper currency. Coins come in various denominations based on the value of a dollar: the penny, which is worth one cent or one-hundredth of a dollar; the nickel, five cents; the dime, 10 cents; the quarter, 25 cents; the half dollar, 50 cents; and the dollar coin. Paper money comes in denominations of $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100.

Government also provides welfare and unemployment benefits to people who cannot support themselves, either because they encounter problems in their personal lives or lose their jobs as a result of economic upheaval; it pays much of the cost of medical care for the aged and those who live in poverty; it regulates private industry to limit air and water pollution; it provides low-cost loans to people who suffer losses as a result of natural disasters.

Government's Role in the Economy: Stabilization and Growth. The federal government guides the overall pace of economic activity, attempting to maintain steady growth, high levels of employment, and price stability. By adjusting spending and tax rates (fiscal policy) or managing the money supply and controlling the use of credit (monetary policy), it can slow down or speed up the economy's rate of growth

Regulation and Control. Regulation falls into two general categories. Economic regulation seeks, either directly or indirectly, to control prices. Traditionally, the government has sought to prevent monopolies such as electric utilities from raising prices beyond the level that would ensure them reasonable profits. Another form of economic regulation, antitrust law, seeks to strengthen market forces so that direct regulation is unnecessary. The government -- and, sometimes, private parties -- have used antitrust law to prohibit practices or mergers that would unduly limit competition.

Direct Services. Each level of government provides many direct services. The federal government, for example, is responsible for national defense, backs research that often leads to the development of new products, conducts space exploration, and runs numerous programs designed to help workers develop workplace skills and find jobs. State governments, meanwhile, are responsible for the construction and maintenance of most highways. State, county, or city governments play the leading role in financing and operating public schools. Local governments are primarily responsible for police and fire protection.

RELIGION IN AMERICA: The United States is a country of many religions. The first words of the Bill of Rights to the U.S. Constitution say: "Congress shall make no law respecting the establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." Therefore, state does not establish, or endorse, or favor a particular form of religion and citizens are free to practice the religion they choose.

America supports over 2000 different religious denominations, and in which more than 60 percent of the citizens can be found at least once a month in one of the almost 500,000 churches, temples and mosques.

EDUCATION: Duration of school lasts 12 years, until around age 18 (depending on the age at entry). Each of the school years is called a grade, so that 12th grade corresponds to the 12th year, etc.

Infant school, pre-school, and the first or second year of formal schooling are collectively termed Early Childhood Education in the United States. Formal primary education is called Elementary Education and ranges from first grade through grade 4, 5, or 6, depending on state and district regulations. The upper level of primary education is often organized separately into a unit called Middle School, which begins at grade 4, 5, or 6 and ends at grade 6, 7, or 8. Likewise, the lower grades of secondary education (years 7, 8, or 9 depending on state and district regulations) are sometimes organized separately into what is called Junior High School. Regular (including upper) secondary education is called High School, beginning in grade 8, 9, or 10 and ending at grade 12, again depending on state and district regulations.

Compulsory schooling ends by law at age 16 in 30 states, at age 17 in 9 states, and at age 18 in 11 states plus the District of Columbia. Students may drop out of school if they have reached the age set in their state's law for the end of compulsory schooling, but dropouts are not considered to have completed school and no certificate or award is issued at this stage. The U.S. dropout rate is just over 11 percent of secondary-level students age 16 and older.

Two basic school leaving certificates are awarded for completing school, the High School Diploma, awarded to graduates of secondary school, and the GED (General Educational Development) Certificate, awarded to adults who left school but then complete a special supervised study and examination program. High School Diplomas represent a variety of different curricula and standards.

No national education system or national curriculum exists in the United States. The federal government does not operate schools.

AMERICAN HOLIDAYS: On legal holidays, businesses, schools and government offices close. The only legal religious holiday is Christmas. Other religious holidays in America are Easter, a Christian holiday and Yom Kippur and Hanukah which are both Jewish holidays.

There are also many holidays that have nothing to do with religion. Some holidays like Memorial Day and Veterans Day are observed out of respect for those who died in battle during various wars.

In the United States, for the year 2002 there are 10 federal holidays set by law. Four are set by date (New Year's Day, Independence Day, Veterans Day, and Christmas Day). The other six are set by a day of the week and month: Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Birthday, Washington's Birthday, Memorial Day, Labor Day, Columbus Day, and Thanksgiving. All but the last are celebrated on Mondays to create three-day weekends for federal employees.

Note: As well as national holidays each state may also have their own holidays.

Background to the Social Movements of the 1960's: At the beginning of the 1960's black and white people were treated differently. There were laws to say that they had to use different shops, services, transport, schools etc. These laws were known as Segregation laws. Women were also treated in a very different way to men.

On 1st February 1960, 4 freshmen from a black college in Greensboro, North Carolina, went to a store and sat down for lunch. The waitress said she could not serve "people like them" (See the picture). The students believed that the law which kept black and white people separate when eating was wrong, so they would not move. The police came, but the students continued to sit down, more people came to join and the next day there were many people there. Each day more black students joined and started a quiet "sit-in". This began the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960's.

During the first twelve months of the 1960's over 50,000 people took part in demonstrations in America, over 3,600 were jailed. But by the end of the 1960's food places were open to people of all colours or nationalities.

In the summer of 1963 hundreds of thousands of peaceful demonstrators went to Washington DC, where Martin Luther King gave a famous speech "I have a dream...". He was given the Nobel Peace Prize in December 1964.

Racial Problems: Americans are a nation of immigrants. Their ancestors are from many different parts of the world. Some came in search of a better life, whilst others were sent to America as slaves. Because there are so many different cultures and religions in America the result is sometimes conflict. There have been many periods of violence due to racial discrimination. The main violence is against the black American population.

Although legal segregation was ended in the 1960's there still exists a segregation in many areas through choice, housing is especially segregated. Many black people live in black only neighbourhoods, and do not mix with white Americans. Black neighbourhoods are sometimes referred to as "Ghettos".

Poverty: America is generally known as a rich country, however about 1 in every 10 Americans lives below the national poverty line. This means that they live on incomes that the government considers too low to buy food, clothes, shelter etc. Many different groups of society live in poverty, sometimes young people, sometimes old people. Poverty leads to crime such as stealing and also leads to the spread of disease. the distribution of money in America is not equal - some people have great wealth, whilst others struggle to live.

Crime: The main social problem in America is Crime. Violent crime rises every year, with most people afraid to leave their homes in the dark, especially in big cities. Many Americans own, and carry, guns for their own protection (this is legal in America). The majority of crime is by young men, with many more black men being arrested than white.

Drugs: The problem of drug abuse grows every year. There is a strong link between drugs and crime. Alcohol and drugs are responsible for many deaths on American roads, with drivers who are drunk or taking drugs. The drug problem began in the 1960's with "social drugs", but more recently has grown into the use of strong drugs. The strong drug users also spread disease through dirty needles, especially HIV / AIDS - a big problem in America. the drug problem costs the government a lot of money - because of crime, court cases, hospital treatment etc.

MEALTIMES: Many meals in America are arranged around popular television shows, people like to eat in front of the TV, not always sitting at a table, they sit in a chair or on a sofa. Cooking in the USA is not just hamburgers, pizza and fast food. However the American fast food restaurant chains have been very successful at introducing American style fast food around the world, now people from many lands believe it is what we everyone eats all of the time in the USA.

Most traditional American foods were introduced by the early European immigrants but modified to take advantage of the locally available ingredients. Fried chicken, meatloaf, baked potato, corn, baked beans and apple pie would be considered traditional American dishes. Regional Cooking varies from state to state and is highly influenced by the types of ingredients locally available, as well as the cultural background of the people that settled in the area. New England cooking, native to the northeastern states; was heavily influenced by the cuisine of the original English settlers. Southern cooking has definite African influences. Cajun cooking, from the New Orleans area, is a spicy mixture of Spanish, French and African styles. California cooking is known for the use of fresh fruits and vegetables in interesting combinations with Asian, Mexican and Spanish flavorings.

BREAKFAST: A typical American breakfast menu includes scrambled or fried eggs or an egg omelet, juice, bacon or sausage, toast, biscuits, or bagels. An alternative American breakfast could be cereal with milk, juice, and toast or pancakes or waffles with syrup and butter, juice, and white milk. Drinks include orange juice, milk, tea or coffee.

LUNCH: The lunch menu normally involves sandwiches (peanut butter and/or jelly, cheese, bologna, turkey, ham), rolls, hamburgers, hot dogs, pizza, tacos, chicken, salad, fruit (orange, banana, apple, tangerine), milk, soft drink, tea or coffee.

The normal practice in America is to eat the salad before the main course. A wonderful American invention is the salad bar. In restaurants that have these salad bars the waiter does not bring your salad. You go to the salad bar and help yourself, usually to as much as you want. This is normally done after you have ordered your meal; you eat the salad while the main course is being cooked.

DINNER: Dinner is normally the largest meal of the day. It normally involves food such as pizza, meat (steak, chicken, fish, pork, turkey) with potatoes and a vegetable (corn, green beans, beans, carrots, spinach, peas, greens, asparagus, cauliflower, broccoli), spaghetti with either tomato or meat sauce, lasagna, tacos, and dessert (cake, cookies, pies, ice cream, and candy). Dessert is served after the main meal - Triple Chocolate Cake, All-American Apple Pie, Rum Carrot Cake, Sudden Death Brownie, Chocolate Chip Cookie Sundae, Berries and Sorbet. turkey (pictured) is a traditional food for Thanksgiving meals.

SNACKS: "Brunch" is a meal taken sometime in the late morning or mid-afternoon. Fast Food is readily available almost everywhere in the USA and is very inexpensive. Sandwiches are the most common and they come in many varieties such as: Hamburgers, roast beef and chicken. Pizza is sold everywhere. In addition, there are fast food restaurants serving fried chicken, Mexican Tacos, Greek Gyros, Chinese dishes, Japanese sushi, Bar-B-Que and many regional specialties. Many fast food restaurants offer free refills on all drinks, and some offer "Giant sized" portions for a small additional charge. You can get a fast food breakfast for about $3 and lunch for less than $5. 

Convenience Stores are open from early morning to late night, sometimes even open "24 hours a day". They usually sell groceries, snacks, pastries, cold drinks, coffee, hot dogs, and sandwiches made to your order. They are very inexpensive. You can usually get a light breakfast or lunch for just a few dollars. 

Supermarkets sell many things besides groceries. They sell hot soups by the cup or the pint. Spoons and napkins are free. Make your own salad from a choice of several dozen items and pay by the weight when you check out at the cashier. You can find some real bargain meals "ready to eat" in a large supermarket. In many cities, supermarkets are open "24 hours a day". 

EXTRA FOOD INFORMATION: Smoking is now banned in all elevators, public buildings, hospitals, busses, trains and airplanes in the US. Restaurants have "smoking" and "non-smoking" tables. Many families do not smoke and prefer that guests do not smoke in their home. Before you light a cigarette, always ask your host or companion if smoking would bother them. 

The minimum drinking age for alcohol is 21 in nearly every state. Laws prohibit anyone under 21 years old from buying, owning or drinking any alcoholic beverage. Bars and nightclubs will not permit anyone younger to enter even if parents accompany them. Restaurants that serve alcohol will allow children to enter and eat but will not serve them any alcoholic beverage.

SPORT IN AMERICA: Sport plays a big part in American life. Although many people do not take part in sport, they do watch sport either on television or at a sports stadium. College students are normally required to take part in sports events as part of their education. A report in 1996 showed that over 60% of American adults do no regular sport, exercise or fitness.

AMERICAN TRANSPORT: Air Travel is the most practical and common method of covering the large distances between areas in the USA. It is the fastest, the most convenient and frequently the most economical means of transportation. Trains are not as popular in the USA as they are in many other countries. They are an acceptable choice only for short or medium distance travel in certain areas. In many major cities, commuter trains provide good passenger service from suburban communities to the downtown metropolitan centers. In many parts of the US, train service may be infrequent or even non-existent. 

Busses are an economical option. Bus transportation is a great option for urban or suburban transit, but bus service can be very limited in rural areas. The Greyhound Bus line offers inter-city and transcontinental bus service. It can be an inexpensive alternative to other forms of travel if you are willing to put up with the discomfort of long rides with minimum comforts. 

Cars are almost a necessity. In many parts of the USA where public transportation is inadequate or non-existent, a car is a practical necessity. In most large cities, the major shopping centers and sports or entertainment facilities are usually located in the suburban communities far from the metropolitan center. Without a vehicle, sightseeing, shopping and touring can be very inconvenient. 

Each of the 50 states has its own set of traffic laws and regulations. Fortunately, most of the laws are the same, but some states have slightly different rules.

The minimum age for driving is 16 in most states but some states will not allow unrestricted driving until 18. Some car rental agencies refuse to rent a car to any person under 25 years of age. Some rental agencies in the US will not rent to drivers over 71 years of age.

The History of American Music: American popular music includes many different forms, such as: Blues, Jazz, Country, Rock, R&B, RAP, and Hip-Hop. When British pop music of the 1960's hit America, almost everyone listened to music from "The Beatles", "Rolling Stones", "Tom Jones" and many other British groups and individual performers.

Rock and Roll grew from Black Rhythm and Blues with Country and Western. Rock and Roll started out being labeled as rebellious, primitive, black music. Some white artists like "Buddy Holly" introduced Rock and Roll to the youth in the early 1950's, and their influence along with others began the first true multi-racial and multi-cultural movement in America. It was legendary Elvis Presley bursting on the scene in the middle 1950's that signaled that Rock and Roll had began to become accepted as legitimate. 

Rhythm and Blues (now called R & B) can trace its roots from Jazz and old black Gospel music. The narrative form (speech) and rich beat of R & B has led to modern RAP and Hip-Hop. It is this music which form the basis of the rhythms of modern American Popular Music. From New Orleans Jazz, to the Motown Sound, to Urban Hip-Hop and Rap, black music forms the core of contemporary music in America. There is hardly a Rocker anywhere who can't trace their music's roots to the sound of black America. 

The media explosion of the 1950's and 1960's was fueled by Rock and Roll on Radio, Television, and the movies. The beat of Rock and Roll became the dominant force of American music, and the lines between the forms began to blend. Music forms are no longer segregated by race today as the forms have merged across the lines of culture in America. Today the effect of this mixing of music and culture can be seen everywhere in the culture. Whitney Houston soulfully sings a song written by Dolly Parton, Lionel Richey writes Country songs for Kenny Rogers. Ray Charles has had some of his greatest hits from Country and Western standards like "Your Cheatin' Heart". Marshall Mathers, better known as Eminem, is a white Rap artist who crosses all lines.

The late 1990's and the beginning of the new millennium have been dominated by the "teen-queens" like Britney Spears, Christina Aguilera, and Mandy Moore, as well as the "boy bands" such as NSYNC, Backstreet Boys, and O-Town. While many of the old favorites like Aerosmith are still popular, the sugar pop crowd rules. 

Country music is undoubtedly one of the most popular genres of music alive today. It was born in the backwoods and hills of the rural South. Country music has played an integral part in American society, especially in the South. Most major cities have at least three country music stations. You can hardly walk a step in Nashville without seeing something of significance to country music.

THE AMERICAN MOVIE INDUSTRY: Ronald Reagan, was a famous actor in the 1950's before becoming president in the 1980's.

By the early 1920s, Hollywood had become the world's film capital. It produced virtually all films show in the United States and received 80 percent of the revenue from films shown abroad. During the '20s, Hollywood attracted many of Europe's most talented actors and actresses. By the end of the decade, Hollywood claimed to be the nation's fifth largest industry, attracting 83 cents out of every dollar Americans spent on amusement.

During the 1920s, movie attendance was very high. By the middle of the decade, 50 million people a week went to the movies - the equivalent of half the nation's population.

The film industry changed radically after World War II, and this change altered the style and content of the films made in Hollywood. After experiencing boom years from 1939 to 1946, the film industry began a long period of decline. Within just seven years, attendance and box receipts fell to half their 1946 levels. Families with babies tended to listen to the radio rather than go to the movies; college students placed studying before seeing the latest film; and newlyweds purchasing homes, automobiles, appliances, and other commodities had less money to spend on movies.

As the 1960s began, the movie industry grew quickly. 

By the early 1960s, an estimated 80 percent of the film-going population was between the ages of 16 and 25. 

Many of the major studios were acquired by large media and entertainment corporations, like Sony, which purchased Columbia Pictures, Time Warner, and Rupert Murdoch, whose holdings include HarperCollins publishers, the Fox television network, and Twentieth Century Fox. At the same time that these large entertainment conglomerates arose, many smaller independent producers like Lorimar and De Laurentiis, disappeared. 

Hollywood Today has increased the amount of family entertainment it offers, including feature-length cartoons like Aladdin and Beauty and the Beast; family comedies, like Honey I Shrunk the Kids; and positive portrayals of the teaching profession, like Dead Poet's Society and Stand and Deliver.

AMERICAN TELEVISION: From the 1950's to 1980's three privately owned television networks offered free programs financed by commercials, they were NBC, CBS, and ABC - controlling  90% of the TV market. Since the 1980's there has been an increase in pay cable TV transmitted by satellite. By 1994, almost 60 percent of American households had subscribed to cable TV. Among the new cable channels were several that show movies 24 hours a day, channels such as MTV, which shows music videos, and many news and entertainment channels. A fourth major commercial network, FOX, has expanded quickly, broadcasting local and national shows.

There are over 300 public television stations across the United States, each of which is independent and serves its community's interests. But the stations are united by such national entities as the Public Broadcasting Service, PBS, which supplies programming. American taxpayers provide partial funding for public television.

Television shows are divided up into different times of day: Daytime, Primetime and Weekends.

There are many American Soap Operas - Many American soaps feature very attractive cast members, unlike British soaps which feature characters which are more true to life.

RADIO: The beginning of commercial radio broadcasts in 1920 brought a new source of information and entertainment directly into American homes.

The expansion of FM radio, which has better sound quality but a more limited signal range than AM, led to a split in radio programming in the 1970s and 1980s. FM came to dominate the music side of programming, while AM has shifted mainly to all-news and talk formats.

Developed over the past 25 years, talk radio features a host, a celebrity or an expert on some subject, and the opportunity for listeners to call in and ask questions or express opinions on the air. The call-in format is now heard on nearly 1,000 of the 10,000 commercial radio stations in the United States.

Besides the 10,000 commercial radio stations, the United States has more than 1,400 public radio stations. Most of these are run by universities and other public institutions for educational purposes and are financed by public funds and private donations. In 1991, more than 12 million Americans listened each week to the 430 public radio stations affiliated with National Public Radio, a nationwide, nonprofit organization headquartered in Washington, D.C. 

NEWSPAPERS (THE PRESS): Early in the 20th century, newspaper editors realized that the best way to attract readers was to give them all sides of a story, without bias. This standard of objective reporting is today one of American journalism's most important traditions. Another dominant feature of early 20th-century journalism was the creation of chains of newspapers operating under the same ownership, today about 75 percent of all U.S. daily papers are owned by newspaper chains.

The number of Sunday papers rose from 497 in 1946 to 889 in 1994. The largest U.S. newspapers have been losing circulation in recent years, a trend that can be attributed to the increasing availability of news from television and other sources. 

The top five daily newspapers by circulation in 1995 were the Wall Street Journal (1,823,207), USA Today (1,570,624), the New York Times (1,170,869), the Los Angeles Times (1,053,498), and the Washington Post (840,232). The youngest of the top five, USA Today, was launched as a national newspaper in 1982, after exhaustive research by the Gannett chain. It relies on bold graphic design, color photos, and brief articles to capture an audience of urban readers interested in news "bites" rather than traditional, longer stories.

New technology has made USA Today possible and is enabling other newspapers to enlarge their national and international audiences. USA Today is edited and composed in Arlington, Virginia, then transmitted via satellite to 32 printing plants around the country and two printing plants serving Europe and Asia. The International Herald Tribune, owned jointly by the New York Times and the Washington Post, is a global newspaper, printed via satellite in 11 cities around the world and distributed in 164 countries.

MAGAZINES: In 1893, the first mass-circulation magazines were introduced, and in 1923, Henry Luce launched "Time", the first weekly news magazine. 

Magazine publishers responded to a reduction in readers by trying to appeal more to carefully defined audiences than to the public at large. Magazines are now available on virtually any topic. TV Guide, Time, and Newsweek, for example, also publish regional editions. 

The number of  magazines published in the United States has risen, from 6,960 in 1970 to 11,000 in 1994. More than 50 magazines had a circulation of over one million in 1994. The top two in circulation were both aimed at retired persons: NRTS/AARP Bulletin (21,875,436) and Modern Maturity (21,716,727). Rounding out the top five were Reader's Digest (15,126,664), TV Guide (14,037,062), and National Geographic (9,283,079). 

In 1993, Time became the first magazine to offer an on-line edition that subscribers can call up on their computers before it hits the newsstands.

LANDSCAPE: The US has many National Parks who employ Park Rangers to look after the land and animals.

The Southwest: The American Southwest is made up of desert areas such as Nevada and many other national parks. The area also includes volcanoes, the most famous being Mount Saint Helens. The area also includes the Hoover Dam, a hydropower energy station.

The Northwest: Near the Canadian border is Yellowstone National Park, named after the river which flows through the area. It is the oldest of the national parks, dating from 1872. It is famous for the hot water springs and waterfalls.

The Rocky Mountains - Colorado: The Rockies are famous mountains, running from the Canadian border to the South, through Colorado. They attract many visitors who climb the snow covered mountains.

Florida: The south east area of the US, is the state of Florida which is warm all year, unlike the north of America. Florida has many beaches and many tourist attractions such as Disney World at Orlando. Florida also has the Everglades national park, with many animals including alligators. South of Miami towards Cuba there are a series of islands called the Florida Keys.

Urban Areas: Each city in America has a unique atmosphere. Many areas are highly developed with huge shopping malls, cinemas etc.

ARCHITECTURE & BUILDINGS: America is well known for the skyscraper, the tall building which are all across the US. They were made possible by new construction techniques and the invention of the elevator, the first skyscraper went up in Chicago in 1884.

FAMILY LIFE: In 1960, over 70 percent of all American households were made up of a working father, a homemaker mother, and their children. Today, "traditional" families with a working husband, an unemployed wife, and one or more children make up less than 15 percent of the nation's households. As American families have changed, the image of the family in the media has changed accordingly. Today's families vary from both parents working to single mothers and their children and unmarried couples who live in the same house.

In a decade, divorce rates doubled. The rapid increase in the divorce rates contributed to a dramatic increase in the number of single-parent households or what used to be known as broken homes. The number of households consisting of a single woman and her children has tripled since 1960.

As late as 1940, less than 12 percent of white married women were in the work force; today the figure is nearly 60 percent and over half of all mothers of pre-schoolers work outside the home.

As wives have assumed a larger role in their family's financial support, they have felt justified in demanding that husbands perform more child care and housework. Today, over two-thirds of all three-to-five year olds take part in a day care, nursery school, or pre-kindergarten program, compared to a fifth in 1970.

FAMILY LIFE:

• In 1960, over 70 percent of all American households were made up of a working father, a homemaker mother, and their children. Today, "traditional" families with a working husband, an unemployed wife, and one or more children make up less than 15 percent of the nation's households. As American families have changed, the image of the family in the media has changed accordingly. Today's families vary from both parents working to single mothers and their children and unmarried couples who live in the same house.

• In a decade, divorce rates doubled. The rapid increase in the divorce rates contributed to a dramatic increase in the number of single-parent households or what used to be known as broken homes. The number of households consisting of a single woman and her children has tripled since 1960.

• As late as 1940, less than 12 percent of white married women were in the work force; today the figure is nearly 60 percent and over half of all mothers of pre-schoolers work outside the home.

• As wives have assumed a larger role in their family's financial support, they have felt justified in demanding that husbands perform more child care and housework. Today, over two-thirds of all three-to-five year olds take part in a day care, nursery school, or pre-kindergarten program, compared to a fifth in 1970.

HOUSING:

TIME ZONES:
PDT - Pacific Daylight Time (Left, Blue) - 1pm
MDT - Mountain Daylight Time (Pink) - 2pm
CDT - Central Daylight Time (Green) - 3pm
EDT - Eastern Daylight Time (Right, Blue) - 4pm 

WEDDINGS:

To get married in Las Vegas: You must present some identification and proof of your age. (A valid passport is acceptable). You must be over 18 years old. (You can be married if you are 16 or 17 years old only if you are accompanied by at least one of your parents or if you have an official document verifying your parent's permission.) If you were previously married and divorced, you must have a copy of your final divorce decree that clearly indicates the date and place that the final decree is registered. 

Both the bride and groom must appear in person at the Marriage License Bureau at 200 South Third Street downtown. The office is open from 8AM until midnight on weekdays and from 8AM Friday until midnight Sunday every weekend. They are also open 24 hours on all holidays. A marriage license cost $30. Once you have the license, any person authorized by the state of Nevada can perform the marriage ceremony. One witness must be present at the ceremony. Most wedding chapels will supply the witness if you have none.

Drive Thru Wedding: There are many places to get married in Las Vegas and many types of wedding ceremonies. You can have anything from a short simple civil ceremony to an elaborate, romantic wedding. You can have a themed wedding, an outdoor wedding even a helicopter wedding. 

A Civil Ceremony: The simplest way to get married is by having a brief civil ceremony performed by the Las Vegas Marriage Commissioner. It can be completed in the Marriage Commissioner's Office. It will require only half of an hour and will cost about $50. 

Wedding Chapels: The famous wedding chapels are part of the legend of Las Vegas. Years ago, many couples journeyed to Las Vegas to take advantage of the lenient divorce and marriage laws in Nevada. They usually came for a speedy divorce and often for a swift marriage soon afterward. A small industry developed around quick weddings. The more enterprising businesses built small quaint-looking chapels to attract their romantic customers.

LANDSCAPE:

• The US has many National Parks who employ Park Rangers to look after the land and animals.

• The Southwest: The American Southwest is made up of desert areas such as Nevada and many other national parks. The area also includes volcanoes, the most famous being Mount Saint Helens. The area also includes the Hoover Dam, a hydropower energy station.

• The Northwest: Near the Canadian border is Yellowstone National Park, named after the river which flows through the area. It is the oldest of the national parks, dating from 1872. It is famous for the hot water springs and waterfalls.

• The Rocky Mountains - Colorado: The Rockies are famous mountains, running from the Canadian border to the South, through Colorado. They attract many visitors who climb the snow covered mountains.

• Florida: The south east area of the US, is the state of Florida which is warm all year, unlike the north of America. Florida has many beaches and many tourist attractions such as Disney World at Orlando. Florida also has the Everglades national park, with many animals including alligators. South of Miami towards Cuba there are a series of islands called the Florida Keys.

• Urban Areas: Each city in America has a unique atmosphere. Many areas are highly developed with huge shopping malls, cinemas etc.

ARCHITECTURE & BUILDINGS: America is well known for the skyscraper, the tall building which are all across the US. They were made possible by new construction techniques and the invention of the elevator, the first skyscraper went up in Chicago in 1884.
 

Styles in American Architecture:

The Seventeenth Century:

17th Century Colonial - Term applies to both New England and Virginia architecture.  

The Eighteenth Century:

Georgian (1714-1776): English-inspired colonial architecture. Marked by a greater concern for style and higher standards of comfort.

Neoclassicism (c.1780-1820): There are several variations:

Federalist: Especially common in New England; a traditionalist approach, heavily influenced by English. Idealist:  An intellectual and moral approach to classicism, at first linked to Roman models. Symbolic and associational values stressed.

Rationalist: Emphasized structure and classical building techniques, such as stone vaulting and domes.

The Nineteenth Century:

Greek Revival (1818-1850): The first truly national style in the United States.  Strong associational values.

Gothic Revival (c. 1820-1860): Strong associational values of religion and nature.

The "Corporate Style" (c.1800-1900): Practical architecture for engineering and commercial purposes; especially early factories.

Egyptian Revival (1820-1850): Used primarily for memorials, cemeteries, prisons, and later, warehouses.

Italianate, or Italian Villa Mode (1840-1860): A residential style used by A.J. Downing and others; a Renaissance revival.

Second Empire Baroque (1860-1880): French origin; used for public and residential architecture.

High Victorian Gothic (1860-1880): English origin; used for ecclesiastical, public, and residential architecture.

Richardsonian Romanesque (1870-1895)

Shingle Style (1879-1900): Used for residential architecture.

Chicago School (1885-1915): Commercial architecture; skyscrapers.

New York Style Skyscrapers (1875-1910): Typically use a historical style; block and tower format.

Classical Revival (1885-1920): Also called Academic Classicism, or Beaux-Arts Classicism.
        
Gothic (Collegiate Gothic) (1885-1930)

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY:

Prairie School (1893-1920)

Wrightian, or Organic Architecture (1920-1959)

Historicist Skyscrapers (1900-1940)

Setback Style Skyscrapers   (1920-1950)

Art Deco (1925-1940): Also called Art Moderne, Streamlined Modern.

International Style I (Early Modern) (1929-1940), International Style II (1945-1970)

Formalism (1957-1996): A renewed interest in monumental qualities and an interest in form for expressive purposes.

Brutalism (1957-1996): Characterized by the use of rough-cast concrete and massive forms.

Late Modern (International Style III) (1970-1996)

RETAIL (SHOPPING): The big shopping malls are in the suburbs: There are still some department stores and downtown shopping areas in most US cities, but the big shopping malls and discount stores are usually located out in the suburban communities. Some of the major outlet centers are located in the countryside miles from the nearest major city.

 

Department Stores: These offer good quality and high fashion: Department stores are large establishments that offer a wide selection of merchandise including fashion clothing, house wares, appliances, luggage and jewelry. They normally offer good quality merchandise, well known brands and the latest fashions, but not low quality products at bargain prices. They frequently have seasonal sales with attractive discounts. At such times, you can get high quality or fashion merchandise at bargain prices. In July and August, they have end-of-summer sales. In November, the Thanksgiving Day sale of pre-Christmas merchandise is one of the biggest shopping days of the year. From December 26 through mid-January, they hold big after-Christmas sales. In February, all the winter merchandise goes on sale. In addition, they have many special promotions and clearance sales. The big department stores are typically parts of national chains, so you can find the same stores in many cities. They normally have a downtown store in a major city with several branch stores in the surrounding suburban shopping malls. Here are the names of some well-known national department stores. Lord & Taylor, Hecht's, Strawbridge's, Kaufman's, Filene's, Macy's, Bloomingdale's, Burdine's, Lazarus, Rich's, Nordstrom's, Sak's, Dayton-Hudson's, Marshall's and Bergdorf-Goodman. 

General Merchandise Stores: They offer affordable quality. "Sears" and "JCPenny's" are two large national chains with stores across the USA. They are similar to department stores but they do not offer high fashion merchandise or prestige brands. Instead, they feature good quality merchandises at affordable prices. They are particularly known for their selection of children's clothing, home appliances, house wares and domestic goods. Sears is famous for its selection of tools and lawn and garden products. 

 

Discount Stores: These sell at low prices. Discount stores sell some good quality merchandise at affordable prices and some lower quality merchandise at very low prices. If you are not looking for the latest fashions, or the famous brands, or the best quality, you can find some very inexpensive merchandise at a discount store. Some national discount chains with stores across the US are K-Mart, Wal-Mart, Target and Caldor. 

Outlet Malls: Outlet stores or factory outlets sell high quality merchandise with a well-known brand at discounted prices. They usually offer merchandise with slight manufacturing flaws and remainders from the last season or the previous year. They do not have end-of-season sales like the department stores, as their merchandise is always discounted 20% to 40% below department store prices. If you take advantage of the end-of-season sales at a department store, you can frequently get better bargains. At all other times, the outlet store is the best buy. Outlet malls with many hundreds of top brand name outlet stores like Levi's, Ralph Lauren, Timberland, and Pioneer can be found in most states, and they are often a bargain hunter's wonderland. 

State and Local Sales Tax: The US government does not have a value-added tax on merchandise as governments do in many other countries, but most states and some cities collect a sales tax on all purchases. State taxes usually average 4% to 8%. Some cities add an additional 2%. Remember when you purchase something for $1.00, you may have to pay $1.08. Some states exempt all clothing and food purchases from sales tax. If you buy something big like a car or motorcycle, be sure to specify that it will be exported and you can usually obtain an exemption from the sales tax. 

Words of Caution: Clothing sizes in the USA are based on measurements in inches. If you purchase any electric appliances or electronics in the US, remember that all electrical items are normally 110v and 60Hz. Be sure that the item is adaptable to your local electric supply. US televisions, video recorders and cell phones use different standards than most other countries and are incompatible. 

 

AMERICAN BUSINESS ORGANISATIONS: Americans have always believed they live in a land of opportunity, where anybody who has a good idea, determination, and a willingness to work hard can start a business. Small enterprises account for 52 percent of all U.S. workers, according to the U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA). Some 19.6 million Americans work for companies employing fewer than 20 workers, 18.4 million work for firms employing between 20 and 99 workers, and 14.6 million work for firms with 100 to 499 workers. By contrast, 47.7 million Americans work for firms with 500 or more employees.

A particular strength of small businesses is their ability to respond quickly to changing economic conditions. They often know their customers personally and are especially suited to meet local needs. 

Small companies that rapidly became major players in the national and international economies include the computer software company Microsoft; the package delivery service Federal Express; sports clothing manufacturer Nike; the computer networking firm America OnLine (AOL); and ice cream maker Ben & Jerry's.

Congress created the Small Business Administration in 1953 to provide professional expertise and financial assistance to persons wishing to form or run small businesses. In a typical year, the SBA guarantees $10,000 million in loans to small businesses, usually for working capital or the purchase of buildings, machinery, and equipment. SBA-backed small business investment companies invest another $2,000 million as venture capital.

The Sole Proprietor: Most businesses are sole proprietorships, they are owned and operated by a single person. In a sole proprietorship, the owner is entirely responsible for the business's success or failure. He or she collects any profits, but if the venture loses money and the business cannot cover the loss, the owner is responsible for paying the bills, even if doing so involves their personal assets.

• Advantages of Sole Proprietorships: They suit people who like to exercise initiative and be their own bosses. They are flexible, since owners can make decisions quickly without having to consult others. By law, individual proprietors pay fewer taxes than corporations. And customers often are attracted to sole proprietorships, believing an individual who is accountable will do a good job.

• Disadvantages of Sole Proprietorships: A sole proprietorship legally ends when an owner dies, although someone may inherit the assets and continue to operate the business. Also, since sole proprietorships generally are dependent on the amount of money their owners can save or borrow, they usually lack the resources to develop into large-scale enterprises.

The Business Partnership: One way to start or expand a venture is to create a partnership with two or more co-owners. Partnerships enable entrepreneurs to pool their talents; one partner may be qualified in production, while another may excel at marketing, for instance. States regulate the rights and duties of partnerships. Co-owners generally sign legal agreements specifying each partner's duties. Partnership agreements also may provide for "silent partners," who invest money in a business but do not take part in its management.

• Advantages of Partnerships: They are exempt from most reporting requirements the government imposes on corporations, and they are taxed favorably compared with corporations. Partners pay taxes on their personal share of earnings, but their businesses are not taxed. 

• Disadvantages of Partnerships: Each member is liable for all of a partnership's debts, and the action of any partner legally binds all the others. If one partner looses money from the business, for instance, the others must share in paying the debt. Another major disadvantage can arise if partners have serious and constant disagreements.

Corporations: Although there are many small and medium-sized companies, big business plays a dominant role in the American economy. In the United States, most large businesses are organized as corporations. A corporation is a specific legal form of business organization, chartered by one of the 50 states and treated under the law like a person. Corporations may own property, sue or be sued in court, and make contracts. By the mid-1990s, more than 40 percent of U.S. families owned common stock, directly or through mutual funds or other intermediaries. But widely dispersed ownership also implies a separation of ownership and control. Because shareholders generally cannot know and manage the full details of a corporation's business, they elect a board of directors to make broad corporate policy. Corporate boards place day-to-day management decisions in the hands of a chief executive officer (CEO), who may also be a board's chairman or president. The CEO supervises other executives, including a number of vice presidents who oversee various corporate functions, as well as the chief financial officer, the chief operating officer, and the chief information officer (CIO). The CIO came onto the corporate scene as high technology became a crucial part of U.S. business affairs in the late 1990s. As long as a CEO has the confidence of the board of directors, he or she generally is permitted a great deal of freedom in running a corporation.

• Advantages of Corporations: Large companies can supply goods and services to a greater number of people, and they frequently operate more efficiently than small ones, they often can sell their products at lower prices because of the large volume and small costs per unit sold. They have an advantage in the marketplace because many consumers are attracted to well-known brand names, which they believe guarantee a certain level of quality. Because a corporation has legal standing itself, its owners are partially sheltered from responsibility for its actions. Owners of a corporation also have limited financial liability; they are not responsible for corporate debts. Because corporate stock is transferable, a corporation is not damaged by the death or disinterest of a particular owner. The owner can sell his or her shares at any time, or leave them to heirs.

• Disadvantages of Corporations: Large corporations at times have shown themselves to be inflexible in adapting to changing economic conditions. As distinct legal entities, corporations must pay taxes. The dividends they pay to shareholders, unlike interest on bonds, are not tax-deductible business expenses. And when a corporation distributes these dividends, the stockholders are taxed on the dividends.

There are many ways for corporation to raise money, or capital, such as:

• Issuing Bonds: A bond is a written promise to pay back a specific amount of money at a certain date or dates in the future. Bondholders receive interest payments at fixed rates on specified dates. Corporations benefit by issuing bonds because the interest rates they must pay investors are generally lower than rates for most other types of borrowing and because interest paid on bonds is considered to be a tax-deductible business expense. However, corporations must make interest payments even when they are not showing profits.

• Issuing Preferred Stock: A company may choose to issue new "preferred" stock to raise capital. Buyers of these shares have special status the company encounters financial trouble. If profits are limited, preferred-stock owners will be paid their dividends after bondholders receive their guaranteed interest payments but before any common stock dividends are paid.

• Selling Common Stock: If a company is in good financial health, it can raise capital by issuing common stock. Typically, investment banks help companies issue stock, agreeing to buy any new shares issued at a set price if the public refuses to buy the stock at a certain minimum price. Some companies pay large dividends, offering investors a steady income. In general, the value of shares increases as investors come to expect corporate earnings to rise.

• Borrowing: Companies can also raise short-term capital by getting loans from banks or other lenders.

• Using profits: Companies also can finance their operations by retaining their earnings. Some corporations, especially electric, gas, and other utilities, pay out most of their profits as dividends to their stockholders. Others distribute, say, 50 percent of earnings to shareholders in dividends, keeping the rest to pay for operations and expansion. Still other corporations, often the smaller ones, prefer to reinvest most or all of their net income in research and expansion, hoping to reward investors by rapidly increasing the value of their shares.

Franchising: Successful small businesses sometimes grow through a practice known as franchising. In a typical franchising arrangement, a successful company authorizes an individual or small group of entrepreneurs to use its name and products in exchange for a percentage of the sales revenue. The founding company lends its marketing expertise and reputation, while the entrepreneur who is granted the franchise manages individual outlets and assumes most of the financial liabilities and risks associated with the expansion. While it is somewhat more expensive to get into the franchise business than to start an enterprise from scratch, franchises are less costly to operate and less likely to fail. That is partly because franchises can take advantage of economies of scale in advertising, distribution, and worker training. It is estimated that the United States had about 535,000 franchised establishments in 1992 -- including auto dealers, gasoline stations, restaurants, real estate firms, hotels and motels, and dry cleaning stores. Franchise companies were expected to account for about 40 percent of U.S. retail sales by the year 2000.

A NATION OF FARMERS: Agriculture in the United States has changed dramatically over the last 200 years. At the time of the American Revolution (1775-83), 95 percent of the population were farmers. Today that figure is less than 2 percent. Today individuals or families own only 64 percent of the farmland. The remainder is owned by corporations, large and small, and farming and its related industries have become big business -- "agribusiness."

Farming is very successful in America mainly because of the quantity of land and the good weather conditions. Desert only exists in a small part of the western United States. Elsewhere, rainfall ranges from modest to plenty, and rivers and underground water allow for irrigation where needed. Large stretches of level or gently rolling land, especially in the Midwest, provide ideal conditions for large-scale agriculture. 

American farmers have always accepted new technology, throughout the 19th century one new tool or invention followed another in rapid succession. By the time of the American Civil War (1861-65), machines were taking over the work of haying, threshing, mowing, cultivating, and planting, in doing so they brought big increases in productivity. 

Another factor in the rise of agricultural output was the rapid flow of settlers across the Mississippi River in the late 19th century. The federal government promoted the internal migration in several ways, including the Homestead Act. Enacted in 1862, the act perpetuated the existing pattern of small family farms by offering a "homestead" of 65 hectares to each family of settlers for a nominal fee. For a time inventions and pro-farming policies were almost too successful. Overproduction became a serious problem after the Civil War. With demand unable to keep pace with supply, the prices farmers received for their products fell. The years from the 1870s until about 1900 were especially hard for the American farmer. 

THE GOVERNMENT'S ROLE IN FARMING: Beginning with the creation of the Department of Agriculture in 1862, the federal government took a direct role in agricultural affairs, going so far as to teach farmers how to make their land more productive. After a period of prosperity in the early 20th century, farm prices declined in the 1920s. The Great Depression of the 1930s drove prices still lower, and by 1932 farm prices had dropped, on average, to less than one-third of their 1920 levels. Farmers went bankrupt by the tens of thousands. 

The government pays farmers to plant fewer crops to stop over production.

Price supports and payments apply only to such basic commodities as grains, dairy products, and cotton; many other crops are not federally subsidized. Farm subsidy programs have been criticized on the grounds that they benefit large farms most and accelerate the trend toward larger -- and fewer -- farms.

Overall, American agriculture has been a success story. American consumers pay less for their food than those in many other industrial countries, and one-third of the cropland in the United States produces crops destined for export. In 1995 agricultural exports exceeded imports by nearly two to one. 

THE AMERICAN STYLE OF MASS PRODUCTION: Thanks to several waves of immigration, America gained population rapidly throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, when business and industry were expanding. Population grew fast enough to provide a steady stream of workers.

In the late 18th century, American manufacturers adopted the factory system, which gathered many workers together in one place. To this was added something new, the "American system" of mass production, which originated in the firearms industry about 1800. The new system allowed the final product to be made in stages, with each worker specializing in a different task. 

By 1890 America's factories production was bigger than the production from farms. By 1913, more than one-third of the world's industrial production came from the United States. 

Lower costs made possible both higher wages for workers and lower prices for consumers. More and more Americans became able to afford products made in their own country. During the first half of the 20th century, mass production of consumer goods such as cars, refrigerators, and kitchen stoves helped to revolutionize the American way of life. 

By the end of World War II in 1945, the United States had the greatest productive of any country in the world, and the words "Made in the U.S.A." meant high quality. 

The 20th century has seen the rise and decline of several industries in the United States. The car industry has struggled to meet the challenge of foreign competition. The clothing industry has declined in the face of competition from countries where labor is cheaper. But other manufacturing industries have appeared, including airplanes and cellular telephones, microchips and space satellites, microwave ovens and high-speed computers. 

As high-tech industries have grown and older industries have declined, the proportion of American workers employed in manufacturing has dropped. Service industries now dominate the economy, selling a service rather than making a product, these industries include entertainment and recreation, hotels and restaurants, communications and education, office administration, and banking and finance.

Some Americans are concerned that by investing abroad, American business is making future competitors. The American government policies improved Japan's economy. The North American Free Trade Agreement in 1993, however, confirmed the continuing American commitment to international trade. 

INDUSTRIAL DEPRESSION: At the start of the 1920s there was a  Communist revolution in Russia , which lead to a fear that revolution might also break out in the United States. Meanwhile, workers in many parts of the country were striking for higher wages.

President Franklin Roosevelt vowed to help "the forgotten man," the farmer who had lost his land or the worker who had lost his job. Congress guaranteed workers the right to join unions and bargain collectively, and established the National Labor Relations Board to settle disputes between unions and employers. 

Not long after, skilled craftsperson's and industrial workers led to the founding of a new labor organization, the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO).

The Depression's effect on employment did not end until after the United States entered World War II in 1941. Factories needed more workers to produce the airplanes, ships, weapons, and other supplies for the war effort. By 1943, with 15 million American men serving in the armed forces, the United States had a labor shortage, which women (in a reversal of societal attitudes) were encouraged to fill. Before long, one out of four workers in defense plants was a woman. 

THE AMERICAN ECONOMIC SYSTEM: The capitalist system means people are naturally selfish, they are involved in manufacturing and trade in order to gain wealth and power. It leads to increased production and sharpens competition. As a result, goods circulate more widely and at lower prices, jobs are created, and wealth is spread.

Most Americans believe that their nation could not be a great economic power without capitalism, also known as free enterprise. Meaning that government should interfere in business as little as possible. 

THE PAST PROBLEMS IN AMERICAN BUSINESS: Factory owners often required them to put in long hours for low wages, provided them with unsafe and unhealthy workplaces, and hired the children of poor families. There was discrimination in hiring: Black Americans and members of some immigrant groups were rejected or forced to work under highly unfavorable conditions. Entrepreneurs took full advantage of the lack of government oversight to enrich themselves by forming monopolies, eliminating competition, setting high prices for products, and selling shoddy goods. 

In 1890, the Sherman Antitrust Act took the first steps toward breaking up monopolies. In 1906, Congress enacted laws requiring accurate labeling of food and drugs and the inspection of meat. During the Great Depression, President Roosevelt and Congress enacted laws designed to ease the economic crisis. Among these were laws regulating the sale of stock, setting rules for wages and hours in various industries, and putting stricter controls on the manufacture and sale of food, drugs, and cosmetics. 

New federal agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency, have come into being. And new laws and regulations have been designed to ensure that businesses do not pollute air and water and that they leave an ample supply of green space for people to enjoy. 

The sum total of these laws and regulations has changed American capitalism. There is scarcely anything a person can buy in the United States today that is not affected by government regulation of some kind. 

Political conservatives believe there is too much government regulation of business. They argue that some of the rules that firms must follow are unnecessary and costly. In response to such complaints, the government has tried to reduce the paperwork required of businesses and to set overall goals or standards for businesses to reach, as opposed to dictating detailed rules of operation. 

THE WORK FORCE TODAY: After the war a wave of strikes for higher wages swept the nation.

The American work week typically amounts to between 35 and 40 hours, but there are many differences: people working part-time or on "flexi-time" or "telecommuting" from their homes with the assistance of phone, computer, and fax machine. 

MONOPOLIES & MERGERS: The corporate form clearly is a key to the successful growth of numerous American businesses. But Americans at times have viewed large corporations with suspicion, and corporate managers themselves have wavered about the value of bigness.
 
In the late 19th century, many Americans feared that corporations could raise large amounts of money and harm smaller ones or could combine and collude with other firms to stop competition. People said that business monopolies would force consumers to pay high prices and deprive them of choice. The concerns lead to two major laws aimed at taking apart or preventing monopolies: the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 and the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914. Government continued to use these laws to limit monopolies throughout the 20th century. In 1984, government "trustbusters" broke a near monopoly of telephone service by American Telephone and Telegraph (AT & T). In the late 1990s, the Justice Department sought to reduce dominance of the computer software market by Microsoft Corporation.

In general, government antitrust officials see a threat of monopoly power when a company gains control of 30 percent of the market for a commodity or service. While antitrust laws may have increased competition, they have not kept U.S. companies from getting bigger. 

The 1980s and 1990s brought new waves of friendly mergers and "hostile" takeovers in some industries, as corporations tried to position themselves to meet changing economic conditions. Mergers were prevalent, for example, in the oil, retail, and railroad industries, all of which were undergoing substantial change. Many airlines sought to combine after deregulation unleashed competition beginning in 1978. Deregulation and technological change helped spur a series of mergers in the telecommunications industry as well.

Also in the late 1990s, Travelers Group merged with Citicorp, forming the world's largest financial services company, while Ford Motor Company bought the car business of Sweden's AB Volvo. Following a wave of Japanese takeovers of U.S. companies in the 1980s, German and British firms grabbed the spotlight in the 1990s, as Chrysler Corporation merged into Germany's Daimler-Benz AG and Deutsche Bank AG took over Bankers Trust. Marking one of business history's high ironies, Exxon Corporation and Mobil Corporation merged, restoring more than half of John D. Rockefeller's industry-dominating Standard Oil Company empire, which was broken up by the Justice Department in 1911. The $81,380 million merger raised concerns among antitrust officials, even though the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) unanimously approved the consolidation.

Instead of merging, some firms have tried to improve their business through joint ventures with competitors. Because these arrangements eliminate competition in the product areas in which companies agree to cooperate, they can pose the same threat to market disciplines that monopolies do.

A spectacular example of cooperation among fierce competitors occurred in 1991 when International Business Machines (IBM), which was the world's largest computer company, agreed to work with Apple Computer, the pioneer of personal computers, to create a new computer software operating system that could be used by a variety of computers. A similar proposed software operating system arrangement between IBM and Microsoft had fallen apart in the mid-1980s, and Microsoft then moved ahead with its own market-dominating Windows system. By 1999, IBM also agreed to develop new computer technologies jointly with Dell Computer, a strong new entry into that market.

THE STOCK MARKET: Very early in America's history, people saw that they could make money by lending it to those who wanted to start or expand a business. To this day, small American entrepreneurs usually borrow the money they need from friends, relatives, or banks. Larger businesses, however, are more likely to acquire cash by selling stocks or bonds to unrelated parties. These transactions usually take place through a stock exchange, or stock market. 

Europeans established the first stock exchange in Antwerp, Belgium, in 1531. It was introduced to the United States in 1792. The stock market was a great success, especially at the New York Stock Exchange, located in the Wall Street area of New York City, the nation's financial hub. 

Americans pride themselves on the efficiency of their stock market and other capital markets, which enable vast numbers of sellers and buyers to engage in millions of transactions each day. These markets owe their success in part to computers, but they also depend on tradition and trust -- the trust of one broker for another, and the trust of both in the good faith of the customers they represent to deliver securities after a sale or to pay for purchases.

Companies are required by law to issue quarterly earnings reports, more elaborate annual reports, and proxy statements to tell stockholders how they are doing. In addition, investors can read the market pages of daily newspapers to find out the price at which particular stocks were traded during the previous trading session. They can review a variety of indexes that measure the overall pace of market activity; the most notable of these is the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA), which tracks 30 prominent stocks. Investors also can turn to magazines and newsletters devoted to analyzing particular stocks and markets. Certain cable television programs provide a constant flow of news about movements in stock prices. And now, investors can use the Internet to get up-to-the-minute information about individual stocks and even to arrange stock transactions.

The Stock Exchanges: There are thousands of stocks, but shares of the largest, best-known, and most actively traded corporations generally are listed on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE). The exchange dates its origin back to 1792. The smaller American Stock Exchange, which lists numerous energy industry-related stocks, operates in much the same way and is located in the same Wall Street area as the New York exchange. Other large U.S. cities host smaller, regional stock exchanges.

The largest number of different stocks and bonds traded are traded on the National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotation system, or Nasdaq. This so-called over-the-counter exchange, which handles trading in about 5,240 stocks, is not located in any one place; rather, it is an electronic communications network of stock and bond dealers. The National Association of Securities Dealers, which oversees the over-the-counter market, has the power to expel companies or dealers that it determines are dishonest or insolvent. Because many of the stocks traded in this market are from smaller and less stable companies, the Nasdaq is considered a riskier market than either of the major stock exchanges. But it offers many opportunities for investors. By the 1990s, many of the fastest growing high-technology stocks were traded on the Nasdaq.

The Regulators: The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), which was created in 1934, is the principal regulator of securities markets in the United States. Before 1929, individual states regulated securities activities. But the stock market crash of 1929, which triggered the Great Depression, showed that arrangement to be inadequate. The Securities Act of 1933 and the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 consequently gave the federal government a preeminent role in protecting small investors from fraud and making it easier for them to understand companies' financial reports.

Companies issuing stocks, bonds, and other securities must file detailed financial registration statements, which are made available to the public. The SEC determines whether these disclosures are full and fair so that investors can make well-informed and realistic evaluations of various securities. The SEC also oversees trading in stocks and administers rules designed to prevent price manipulation; to that end, brokers and dealers in the over-the-counter market and the stock exchanges must register with the SEC. In addition, the commission requires companies to tell the public when their own officers buy or sell shares of their stock; the commission believes that these "insiders" possess intimate information about their companies and that their trades can indicate to other investors their degree of confidence in their companies' future.

The agency also seeks to prevent insiders from trading in stock based on information that has not yet become public. In the late 1980s, the SEC began to focus not just on officers and directors but on insider trades by lower-level employees or even outsiders like lawyers who may have access to important information about a company before it becomes public. The SEC has five commissioners who are appointed by the president. No more than three can be members of the same political party; the five-year term of one of the commissioners expires each year.

TELECOMMUNICATIONS: Until the 1980s in the United States, the term "telephone company" was synonymous with American Telephone & Telegraph. AT&T controlled nearly all aspects of the telephone business. Its regional subsidiaries, known as "Baby Bells," were regulated monopolies, holding exclusive rights to operate in specific areas. The Federal Communications Commission regulated rates on long-distance calls between states, while state regulators had to approve rates for local and in-state long-distance calls.

Government regulation was justified on the theory that telephone companies, like electric utilities, were natural monopolies. Competition, which was assumed to require stringing multiple wires across the countryside, was seen as wasteful and inefficient. That thinking changed beginning around the 1970s, as sweeping technological developments promised rapid advances in telecommunications. Independent companies asserted that they could, indeed, compete with AT&T. But they said the telephone monopoly effectively shut them out by refusing to allow them to interconnect with its massive network.

Telecommunications deregulation came in two sweeping stages. In 1984, a court effectively ended AT&T's telephone monopoly, forcing the giant to spin off its regional subsidiaries. AT&T continued to hold a substantial share of the long-distance telephone business, but vigorous competitors such as MCI Communications and Sprint Communications won some of the business, showing in the process that competition could bring lower prices and improved service.

A decade later, pressure grew to break up the Baby Bells' monopoly over local telephone service. New technologies -- including cable television, cellular (or wireless) service, the Internet, and possibly others -- offered alternatives to local telephone companies. But economists said the enormous power of the regional monopolies inhibited the development of these alternatives. In particular, they said, competitors would have no chance of surviving unless they could connect, at least temporarily, to the established companies' networks -- something the Baby Bells resisted in numerous ways.

In 1996, Congress responded by passing the Telecommunications Act of 1996. The law allowed long-distance telephone companies such as AT&T, as well as cable television and other start-up companies, to begin entering the local telephone business. It said the regional monopolies had to allow new competitors to link with their networks. To encourage the regional firms to welcome competition, the law said they could enter the long-distance business once new competition was established in their domains.

At the end of the 1990s, it was still too early to assess the impact of the new law. There were some positive signs. Numerous smaller companies had begun offering local telephone service, especially in urban areas where they could reach large numbers of customers at low cost. The number of cellular telephone subscribers soared. Countless Internet service providers sprung up to link households to the Internet. But there also were developments that Congress had not anticipated or intended. A great number of telephone companies merged, and the Baby Bells mounted numerous barriers to thwart competition. The regional firms, accordingly, were slow to expand into long-distance service. Meanwhile, for some consumers -- especially residential telephone users and people in rural areas whose service previously had been subsidized by business and urban customers -- deregulation was bringing higher, not lower, prices.

THE AMERICAN MOVIE INDUSTRY:

• Photo of Ronald Reagan, who was a famous actor in the 1950's before becoming president in the 1980's.

• By the early 1920s, Hollywood had become the world's film capital. It produced virtually all films show in the United States and received 80 percent of the revenue from films shown abroad. During the '20s, Hollywood attracted many of Europe's most talented actors and actresses. By the end of the decade, Hollywood claimed to be the nation's fifth largest industry, attracting 83 cents out of every dollar Americans spent on amusement.

• During the 1920s, movie attendance was very high. By the middle of the decade, 50 million people a week went to the movies - the equivalent of half the nation's population.

• The theaters which were used by the middle class were quite different. Late in the new century's first decade, theaters in downtown or middle class neighborhoods became increasingly luxurious. At first many of these theaters were designed in the same styles as many other public buildings.

• The film industry changed radically after World War II, and this change altered the style and content of the films made in Hollywood. After experiencing boom years from 1939 to 1946, the film industry began a long period of decline. Within just seven years, attendance and box receipts fell to half their 1946 levels. Families with babies tended to listen to the radio rather than go to the movies; college students placed studying before seeing the latest film; and newlyweds purchasing homes, automobiles, appliances, and other commodities had less money to spend on movies.

• Then, too, especially after 1950, television challenged and surpassed the movies as America's most popular entertainment form. In 1940, there were just 3,785 TV sets in the United States. Two decades later, nine homes in every ten had at least one TV set. For preceding Americans, clothing styles, speech patterns, and even moral attitudes and political points of view had been shaped by the movies.

• Hollywood began produced movies that explored disturbing changes in the lives of American youth. Films such as The Wild One (1954), Blackboard Jungle (1955), and Rebel Without a Cause (1955) portrayed adolescents as criminals.

• As the 1960s began, the movie industry grew quickly. Among the most popular films at the start of the decade were Doris Day romantic comedies like That Touch of Mink (1962) and epic blockbusters like The Longest Day (1962), Lawrence of Arabia (1962), and Cleopatra (1963).

• By the early 1960s, an estimated 80 percent of the film-going population was between the ages of 16 and 25. At first, the major studios largely ignored this audience, leaving it the hands of smaller studios like American International Pictures. Two films released in 1967--Bonnie and Clyde and The Graduate--awoke Hollywood to the size and influence of the youth audience. Bonnie and Clyde, the story of two depression era bank robbers, was advertised with the slogan: "They're young, they're in love, they kill people." Inspired by such French New Wave pictures as Breathless (1960), the film aroused intense controversy for romanticizing gangsters and transforming them into social rebels. A celebration of youthful rebellion also appeared in The Graduate, which was the third-highest grossing film up until this time. In this film, a young college graduate rejects a hypocritical society and the traditional values of his parents--and the promise of a career in "plastics"--and finds salvation in love. 

• The most popular films of the late 1970s and early 1980s were escapist blockbusters like Star Wars (1977), Superman (1978), and Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981)-- featuring spectacular special effects, action, and simplistic conflicts between good and evil--inspirational tales of the indomitable human spirit, like Rocky (1976).

• Many of the major studios were acquired by large media and entertainment corporations, like Sony, which purchased Columbia Pictures, Time Warner, and Rupert Murdoch, whose holdings include HarperCollins publishers, the Fox television network, and Twentieth Century Fox. At the same time that these large entertainment conglomerates arose, many smaller independent producers like Lorimar and De Laurentiis, disappeared. 

• Hollywood Today has increased the amount of family entertainment it offers, including feature-length cartoons like Aladdin and Beauty and the Beast; family comedies, like Honey I Shrunk the Kids; and positive portrayals of the teaching profession, like Dead Poet's Society and Stand and Deliver. 

• Many Americans worry about Hollywood's future, complaining that "they don't make movies like they used to." A basic problem facing today's Hollywood is the rapidly rising cost of making and marketing a movie: an average of $40 million today. The immense cost of producing movies has led the studios to seek guaranteed hits: blockbuster loaded with high-tech special effects, sequels, and remakes of earlier movies, foreign films, and even old TV shows. 

• Founded in 1912, Universal Studios is the oldest continuously operating film company in the United States and one of the oldest studios in the world. Over the years, Universal has gone through many changes, from a family operation in its early days to a multi-media conglomerate today, incorporating many facets of the entertainment industry, including motion pictures, television, music, theme parks, and live entertainment

AMERICAN TRANSPORT: Air Travel is the most practical and common method of covering the large distances between areas in the USA. It is the fastest, the most convenient and frequently the most economical means of transportation.

Trains are not as popular in the USA as they are in many other countries. They are an acceptable choice only for short or medium distance travel in certain areas. In many major cities, commuter trains provide good passenger service from suburban communities to the downtown metropolitan centers. In many parts of the US, train service may be infrequent or even non-existent.

Busses are an economical option. Bus transportation is a great option for urban or suburban transit, but bus service can be very limited in rural areas. The Greyhound Bus line offers inter-city and transcontinental bus service. It can be an inexpensive alternative to other forms of travel if you are willing to put up with the discomfort of long rides with minimum comforts. 

Cars are almost a necessity. In many parts of the USA where public transportation is inadequate or non-existent, a car is a practical necessity. In most large cities, the major shopping centers and sports or entertainment facilities are usually located in the suburban communities far from the metropolitan center. Without a vehicle, sightseeing, shopping and touring can be very inconvenient.

Hitchhiking is not permitted in most states. Hitchhiking is illegal in many states. You may occasionally see a person trying to "hitch a ride" along an interstate or at the entry to a toll road, but they are often risking a fine if apprehended by a police patrol. 

Bicycles are a good way to see the USA. But bicycles are not as common in the US as they are in many other countries, so car and truck drivers are not as accustomed to bicyclist on the roads. Bicycles are banned from the freeways and interstate highways, but are permitted on all other roads. Many cities and towns have off-road bicycle paths and trails. 

Car rental prices are very competitive in most states and no single agency has the best prices every time. Prices change frequently and every agency offers many special promotions and competitive priced deals. If you spend some time shopping for the best price, you can often save money. Here are some tips on how to find the best prices and how to save money. 

Each of the 50 states has its own set of traffic laws and regulations. Fortunately, most of the laws are the same, but some states have slightly different rules.

The speed limit in most states is now 65 miles per hour (about 110 km/hr) except where signs indicate slower speeds. Many drivers travel about 5 mph above the legal limit and the police do not seem to mind. Speed limits are strictly enforced by radar in many states (especially the eastern highly populated areas). In the western states, enforcement can be much more lax and motorists frequently travel at 85 mph or more. Speeding in any road construction area is strictly enforced with very heavy penalties in most states.

The minimum age for driving is 16 in most states but some states will not allow unrestricted driving until 18. Some car rental agencies refuse to rent a car to any person under 25 years of age. Some rental agencies in the US will not rent to drivers over 71 years of age. Nearly all states have laws requiring the driver and front passengers to wear seat belts. Many states require children to wear seat belts even in the back seats. Nearly every state requires special child restraint seats for all young children. Most states require motorcyclists to wear helmets.

The speed limit in front of every school is 15 mph when the warning lights are flashing. You are required to stop in both directions for any school bus with flashing lights. These rules are strictly enforced in every state and have severe penalties for disobedience. Drinking alcohol and driving is also forbidden and strictly enforced in all states. 

The American Automobile Association (AAA), commonly called the "triple A", provides some wonderful services to drivers. They have offices in every city and most of the larger towns in the US. If you are a member of a national motor club in your home country, you can receive many of their benefits free of charge by simply showing your membership card. The AAA provides free maps and tourist guides for any city or state in the US. 

The US highway system - The USA has an extensive system of interstate highways and state maintained roads. Some of the major highways are toll roads often called turnpikes, but most are free. All major interstate highways running north to south have odd numbers and are ordered from I-5 on the Pacific coast to I-95 along the Atlantic coast. All interstates running east to west are evenly numbered beginning with I-8 and I-10 near the Mexican border to I-94 near Canada.

MEALTIMES: Many meals in America are arranged around popular television shows, people like to eat in front of the TV, not always sitting at a table, they sit in a chair or on a sofa. Cooking in the USA is not just hamburgers, pizza and fast food. However the American fast food restaurant chains have been very successful at introducing American style fast food around the world, now people from many lands believe it is what we everyone eats all of the time in the USA.

Most traditional American foods were introduced by the early European immigrants but modified to take advantage of the locally available ingredients. Fried chicken, meatloaf, baked potato, corn, baked beans and apple pie would be considered traditional American dishes. 

Regional Cooking varies from state to state and is highly influenced by the types of ingredients locally available, as well as the cultural background of the people that settled in the area. New England cooking, native to the northeastern states; was heavily influenced by the cuisine of the original English settlers. Southern cooking has definite African influences. Cajun cooking, from the New Orleans area, is a spicy mixture of Spanish, French and African styles. California cooking is known for the use of fresh fruits and vegetables in interesting combinations with Asian, Mexican and Spanish flavorings.

BREAKFAST: A typical American breakfast menu includes scrambled or fried eggs or an egg omelet, juice, bacon or sausage, toast, biscuits, or bagels. An alternative American breakfast could be cereal with milk, juice, and toast or pancakes or waffles with syrup and butter, juice, and white milk. Drinks include orange juice, milk, tea or coffee. There are different types of breakfast as follows:

Continental Breakfast - Choice of orange, grapefruit, and cranberry juices, sliced fruits and seasonal berries. An assortment of bakery items such as  Croissants, bagels, muffins, and assorted Danishes. Served with jam, cream cheese and butter. Freshly brewed coffee, decaffeinated coffee and, iced & herbal teas

All-American Breakfast Buffet - Choice of orange, grapefruit, and cranberry juices, sliced fruits and seasonal berries. An assortment of bakery items such as  Croissants, bagels, muffins, and assorted Danishes. Served with jam, cream cheese and butter. Assorted bowls of cereals, granola, and raisins. Individual flavored yogurts. Farm fresh scrambled eggs. Country sausage. Three pepper bacon. Breakfast potatoes. Freshly brewed coffee, decaffeinated coffee and, iced & herbal teas. Thick sliced French toast with warm maple syrup.

LUNCH: The lunch menu normally involves sandwiches (peanut butter and/or jelly, cheese, bologna, turkey, ham), rolls, hamburgers, hot dogs, pizza, tacos, chicken, salad, fruit (orange, banana, apple, tangerine), milk, soft drink, tea or coffee.

The normal practice in America is to eat the salad before the main course. A wonderful American invention is the salad bar. In restaurants that have these salad bars the waiter does not bring your salad. You go to the salad bar and help yourself, usually to as much as you want. This is normally done after you have ordered your meal; you eat the salad while the main course is being cooked.

There are many different salads, such as: "Grilled Chicken Salad" - Mixed Greens tossed with warm grilled Chicken Breast, Carrots and Tortilla Strips in our Cider Vinaigrette. Topped with roasted Walnut Sauce. "Chicken Tender Salad" - Chicken Tenders atop mixed Greens, Avocado, Scallions, Tomato and shredded Cheddar, tossed in Peppercorn Ranch Dressing. Drizzled with Barbecue Sauce. "Steak Salad" - Grilled seasoned Beef on mixed young Greens with Avocado, Tomato and fresh Mozzarella tossed in Italian Vinaigrette. 

Sandwiches are also served in many different ways, if you eat out sandwiches may be as follows: Served with crispy seasoned French Fries or mixed young Greens or Baked Potato. Cheeseburger - Grilled with your choice of Cheese on a toasted Sesame Seed Bun. Cooked well done unless otherwise specified. Zone Burger - Add seared Mushrooms, Red Peppers, and Onions to our Cheeseburger. Cooked well done unless otherwise specified. Turkey Burger - Grilled all white Meat Patty with your choice of Cheese on a toasted Sesame Seed Bun. 

DINNER: Dinner is normally the largest meal of the day. It normally involves food such as pizza, meat (steak, chicken, fish, pork, turkey) with potatoes and a vegetable (corn, green beans, beans, carrots, spinach, peas, greens, asparagus, cauliflower, broccoli), spaghetti with either tomato or meat sauce, lasagna, tacos, and dessert (cake, cookies, pies, ice cream, and candy). Dessert is served after the main meal - Triple Chocolate Cake, All-American Apple Pie, Rum Carrot Cake, Sudden Death Brownie, Chocolate Chip Cookie Sundae, Berries and Sorbet. turkey (pictured) is a traditional food for Thanksgiving meals.

SNACKS: "Brunch" is a meal taken sometime in the late morning or mid-afternoon. Fast Food is readily available almost everywhere in the USA and is very inexpensive. Sandwiches are the most common and they come in many varieties such as: Hamburgers, roast beef and chicken. Pizza is sold everywhere. In addition, there are fast food restaurants serving fried chicken, Mexican Tacos, Greek Gyros, Chinese dishes, Japanese sushi, Bar-B-Que and many regional specialties. Many fast food restaurants offer free refills on all drinks, and some offer "Giant sized" portions for a small additional charge. You can get a fast food breakfast for about $3 and lunch for less than $5. 

Convenience Stores are open from early morning to late night, sometimes even open "24 hours a day". They usually sell groceries, snacks, pastries, cold drinks, coffee, hot dogs, and sandwiches made to your order. They are very inexpensive. You can usually get a light breakfast or lunch for just a few dollars. 

Supermarkets sell many things besides groceries. They sell hot soups by the cup or the pint. Spoons and napkins are free. Make your own salad from a choice of several dozen items and pay by the weight when you check out at the cashier. You can find some real bargain meals "ready to eat" in a large supermarket. In many cities, supermarkets are open "24 hours a day". 

Food Courts have become very popular in most shopping malls. They offer a variety of fast food restaurants clustered around a central seating area. You can find many kinds of foods, beverages and desserts with a comfortable place to relax and eat. Malls usually open about 10:00 am and close at 9:00 pm except on Sundays when they close at 5:00 pm in most parts of the USA. 

All you can Eat Buffets and Salad Bars are great places to go when you are really hungry. For one price, you can eat all you want from the buffet table. In some "all you can eat" restaurants the buffet table is over 50 feet (15 meters) long with all sorts of meats, fishes, salads, fruits, vegetables and desserts. Most "all you can eat" buffet restaurants charge about $7 to $10 at lunchtime and $10 to $15 for dinner. Many steak houses and other restaurants have "soup and salad" bars that include hot foods like chicken wings or tacos and desserts. If you order any meal, the "all you can eat" salad bar is included at no extra charge. For a real bargain, just order the salad bar with a beverage. A salad bar usually costs about $5 at lunch and about $8 at dinner. 

EXTRA INFORMATION: Smoking is now banned in all elevators, public buildings, hospitals, busses, trains and airplanes in the US. Restaurants have "smoking" and "non-smoking" tables. Many families do not smoke and prefer that guests do not smoke in their home. Before you light a cigarette, always ask your host or companion if smoking would bother them. 

The minimum drinking age for alcohol is 21 in nearly every state. Laws prohibit anyone under 21 years old from buying, owning or drinking any alcoholic beverage. Bars and nightclubs will not permit anyone younger to enter even if parents accompany them. Restaurants that serve alcohol will allow children to enter and eat but will not serve them any alcoholic beverage.

American Holidays and Festivals

AMERICAN HOLIDAYS: On legal holidays, businesses, schools and government offices close. The only legal religious holiday is Christmas. Other religious holidays in America are Easter, a Christian holiday and Yom Kippur and Hanukah which are both Jewish holidays.

There are also many holidays that have nothing to do with religion. Some holidays like Memorial Day and Veterans Day are observed out of respect for those who died in battle during various wars.

In the United States, for the year 2002 there are 10 federal holidays set by law. Four are set by date (New Year's Day, Independence Day, Veterans Day, and Christmas Day). The other six are set by a day of the week and month: Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Birthday, Washington's Birthday, Memorial Day, Labor Day, Columbus Day, and Thanksgiving. All but the last are celebrated on Mondays to create three-day weekends for federal employees.

• 1st January: New Year's Day - A federal holiday in the United States. In the early history of America, the new year was observed on March 25 until January 1st, 1753. This is because of the calendar in use then. In 1752, England and America adopted the Gregorian colander after deciding that the Julian colander was not accurate. Now in America the biggest block party of the year happens in New York City's Times Square. Millions of people gather every year to watch the Ball Drop as they count down to mid-night. At mid-night everyone yells HAPPY NEW YEAR. Some people shake hands while others kiss and embrace. The party in Times Square is always televised so the people who can't make to New York can join the celebration from their homes.

• 6th January: Epiphany - (from Greek epiphanies, “manifestation”). Falls on the 12th day after Christmas and commemorates the manifestation of Jesus Christ to the Gentiles, as represented by the Magi, the baptism of Jesus, and the miracle of the wine at the marriage feast at Cana. One of the three major Christian festivals, along with Christmas and Easter. Epiphany originally marked the beginning of the carnival season preceding Lent, and the evening preceding it is known as Twelfth Night.

• Third Monday in January: Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Birthday - (The actual date of his birthday is Jan. 15th) A federal holiday observed on the third Monday in January that honors the late civil rights leader. It became a federal holiday in 1986. In 1999, New Hampshire became the last state to officially honor the holiday. Martin Luther King Junior believed that everyone should be treated equally regardless of their race or skin color. He fought against racial discrimination and prejudice saying that people should be judged according to their character. Martin Luther King Jr. was born a minister's son on January 15, 1929. He entered college when he was only 15 years old. While in college he studied black history, religion and theology. He received his doctor of philosophy degree from Boston University. After college he became a minister and married Coretta Scott. King became the pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church where he preached against segregation of black people. King's most famous speech, "I Have a Dream" was given in 1963 in front of Lincoln Memorial, in Washington, D.C. 250,000 gathered to hear his speech that day. Even though King believed in non-violent methods to achieve his goal of desegregation, his life ended very violently. King was killed by an assassin at the age of 39 years.

• 2nd February: Groundhog Day - (A Groundhog is a type of animal) Groundhog day began as a Christian Holy Day. According to Western religious tradition, Groundhog Day, is more formally known as Candlemas Day. The earliest reference to groundhog day as it is recognized today is February, 1841. Groundhog Day has its roots in ancient times, when humans were enlightened enough to interpret the workings of the world be watching the animals around them. Alas, the groundhog was not a good choice, since actions rarely accurately predict the coming of spring. Feb 2nd marks the midway point between the winter solstice and the spring equinox. The date was a time of celebration for ancient Europeans since it meant the beginning of a new growing season. With the rise of Christianity, the pagan rites of February 2nd became Candlemas Day, celebrated with the blessing of candles and an odd belief that if a groundhog waking from its winter sleep cast a shadow, the winter would continue for six more weeks.

• 12th February: Lincoln's Birthday - A holiday in many states, this day was first formally observed in Washington, DC, in 1866, when both houses of Congress gathered for a memorial address in tribute to the assassinated president.

• Shrove Tuesday: (Date changes each year, normally about 2nd week in February) - Falls the day before Ash Wednesday and marks the end of the carnival season, which once began on Epiphany but is now usually celebrated the last three days before Lent. In France, the day is known as Mardi Gras (Fat Tuesday), and Mardi Gras celebrations are also held in several American cities, particularly in New Orleans. The day is sometimes called Pancake Tuesday by the English because fats, which were prohibited during Lent, had to be used up.

• Ash Wednesday: (Date changes, day after Shrove Tuesday) - The seventh Wednesday before Easter and the first day of Lent, which lasts 40 days. Having its origin sometime before A.D. 1000, it is a day of public penance and is marked in the Roman Catholic Church by the burning of the palms blessed on the previous year's Palm Sunday. With the ashes from the palms the priest then marks a cross with his thumb upon the forehead of each worshipper. The Anglican Church and a few Protestant groups in the United States also observe the day, but generally without the use of ashes.

• 14th February: St. Valentine's Day - This day is the festival of two third-century martyrs, both named St. Valentine. It is not known why this day is associated with lovers. It may derive from an old pagan festival, or it may have been inspired by the belief that birds mate on this day.

• Third Monday in February: Washington's Birthday / President's Day - (The actual date of his birthday is Feb. 22nd.) On the third Monday of February the United States honors all of its presidents; but, originally President's Day was set aside as a day to celebrate the birthdays of two great American presidents: Abraham Lincoln and George Washington. George Washington, who was born on February 22, 1732, was the first elected president of the United States.

• 23rd February: Eid al-Adha, (Feast of Sacrifice) - commemorates Abraham's willingness to obey God by sacrificing his son. Lasting for three days, it concludes the annual Hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca. Muslims worldwide sacrifice a lamb or other animal and distribute the meat to relatives or the needy.

• 26th February: Purim (Feast of Lots) - A day of joy and feasting celebrating the deliverance of the Jews from a massacre planned by the Persian minister Haman. According to the Book of Esther, the Jewish queen Esther interceded with her husband, King Ahasuerus, to spare the life of her uncle, Mordecai, and Haman was hanged on the same gallows he had built for Mordecai. The holiday is marked by the reading of the Book of Esther (The Megillah), and by the exchange of gifts, donations to the poor, and the presentation of Purim plays.

• 15th March: First Day of Muharram - The month of Muharram marks the beginning of the Islamic liturgical year. On the tenth day of the month, many Muslims may observe a day of fasting, known as Ashurah.

• 17th March (Sunday): St. Patrick's Day - St. Patrick, patron saint of Ireland, has been honored in America since the first days of the nation. Perhaps the most notable part of the observance is the annual St. Patrick's Day parade in New York City. St. Patrick's Day is a religious holiday that has its root is Ireland. St. Patrick, whose real name was Maewyn Succat, was born sometime around the year 389. At the age of 16 Maewyn was kidnapped by Irish pirates that had landed near his home in England. During the years that he was in Ireland he worked and learned the Irish language and way of life. Having been born of Christian parents and raised in a Christian home, Maewyn was troubled because the Irish worshiped many gods and spirits. Eventually Maewyn was able to escape from Irish slavery. He went to France where he studied to become a priest. After 14 years of study he was sent back to Ireland as a Bishop by the Pope. Once back in Ireland, Maewyn, who by now had changed his name to Patrick, traveled all across the island and established churches and schools. According to legend, he also performed many miracles. One of the best known stories tells of Patrick driving all the snakes out of Ireland. In the United States, St. Patrick's day has come to represent the Irish culture and the contributions of its people to the United States. 

• EASTER: Made up of many different days, see below. (Date changes each year - March / April) Easter is probably the most important Christian holiday on the calendar, it uses the egg, as a symbol. In the United States Easter is celebrated in several ways. On Easter morning children begin their day by looking for Easter eggs that the Easter bunny has hidden for them. Of course most children know that the eggs were hidden by their parents and not the Easter bunny. Many children help their parents color the Easter eggs knowing that soon they will be eating them as a snack on Easter day. Some cities have Easter egg hunts at the local parks. And of course, many people attend "Sunrise Services" at their local church. In fact, more people go to church on Easter Sunday than at any other time of the year. 

Palm Sunday - Observed the Sunday before Easter to commemorate the entry of Jesus into Jerusalem.

First Day of Passover - (Pesach). The Feast of the Passover, also called the Feast of Unleavened Bread, commemorates the escape of the Jews from Egypt. As the Jews fled, they ate unleavened bread, and from that time the Jews have allowed no leavening in their houses during Passover, bread being replaced by matzoh.

Good Friday - The Friday before Easter, it commemorates the Crucifixion, which is retold during services from the Gospel according to St. John. A feature in Roman Catholic churches is the Liturgy of the Passion; there is no Consecration, the Host having been consecrated the previous day. The eating of hot-cross buns on this day is said to have started in England.

Easter Sunday - Observed in all Western Christian churches, Easter commemorates the Resurrection of Jesus. It is celebrated on the first Sunday after the full moon that occurs on or next after the vernal equinox (fixed at March 21) and is therefore celebrated between March 22 and April 25 inclusive. This date was fixed by the Council of Nicaea in A.D. 325.

Orthodox Easter - (Pascha). The Orthodox church uses the same formula to calculate Easter as the Western church, but bases it on the traditional Julian calendar instead of the more contemporary Gregorian calendar. For this reason Orthodox Easter generally falls on a different date than the Western Christian Easter.

• 9th May: Ascension Day - The Ascension of Jesus took place in the presence of His apostles 40 days after the Resurrection. It is traditionally thought to have occurred on Mount Olivet in Bethany.

• Second Sunday in May: Mother's Day - West Virginia was the first state to recognize the holiday in 1910, and President Woodrow Wilson officially proclaimed Mother's Day a national holiday in 1914.

• May: First Day of Shavuot (Hebrew Pentecost) - This festival, sometimes called the Feast of Weeks, or of Harvest, or of the First Fruits, falls 50 days after Passover and originally celebrated the end of the seven-week grain-harvesting season. In later tradition, it also celebrated the giving of the Law to Moses on Mount Sinai.

• May: Pentecost (Whitsunday) - This day commemorates the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the apostles 50 days after the Resurrection. The sermon by the apostle Peter, which led to the baptism of 3,000 who professed belief, originated the ceremonies that have since been followed. “Whitsunday” is believed to have come from “white Sunday” when, among the English, white robes were worn by those baptized on the day.

• May: (Twelfth day of the month in Islamic Calendar) - Mawlid an-Nabi - This holiday celebrates the birthday of Muhammad, the founder of Islam. It is fixed as the 12th day of the month of Rabi I in the Islamic calendar. 

• 30th May: Memorial Day - It became a federal holiday in 1971, originating in 1868, when Union general John A. Logan designated a day in which the graves of Civil War soldiers would be decorated. Originally known as Decoration Day, the holiday was changed to Memorial Day within twenty years, becoming a holiday dedicated to the memory of all war dead. Memorial Day is a patriotic holiday in the United States. It is a legal holiday in most states but, until recently, it was not observed on the same date in all states. Northern states used to observe Memorial Day on May 30th, southern states observed the holiday on either April 26th, May 10th, or June 3rd. By federal law Memorial Day is now observed on May 30th in all states. Memorial Day is not a happy holiday. On Memorial Day we honor all the men and women who have died while serving their country in the Armed Forces.

• 14th June: Flag Day - This day commemorates the adoption by the Continental Congress on June 14, 1777, of the Stars and Stripes as the U.S. flag. Although it is a legal holiday only in Pennsylvania, President Truman, on Aug. 3, 1949, signed a bill requesting the president to call for its observance each year by proclamation.

• Third Sunday in June: Father's Day - The exact origin of the holiday is not clear, but it was first celebrated June 19, 1910, in Spokane, Washington. In 1966 President Lyndon Johnson signed a proclamation making Father's Day official

• 4th July: Independence Day - The day of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence in 1776, celebrated in all states and territories. The observance began in 1777 in Philadelphia. Independence Day is one of the most important of all American holidays. That's the day that we celebrate our independence from England, who once controlled all of the new colonies in the New World. In 1773, there were only 13 colonies in America. About 2 million people lived in those colonies and all 2 million people had to pay taxes to England. The people believed this was unjust because even though they paid taxes they had no say in the way they were being governed. One night when three English ships loaded with tea was dock in Boston Harbor, some Americans dressed like Indians went aboard the ships and threw all the tea into the water. This became known as "the Boston tea party." This was seen as an act of treason by the English Crown and England sent many soldiers to America. The English soldiers killed many Americans in what is now called the Boston Massacre. After the Boston Massacre, the colonists formed the Constitutional Congress which decided that America should declare its independence from England. Thomas Jefferson was appointed to write the Declaration of Independence which was signed July 4, 1776. But this did not guarantee America's freedom from England. Only after defeating England in a war that lasted for five years was America free from England's control. The British army surrendered to General Washington at Yorktown, Virginia in late 1781. The Treaty of Paris, which gave America its own sovereignty, was signed in 1783. 

• First Monday in September: Labor Day - First first celebrated in New York in 1882 under the sponsorship of the Central Labor Union, following the suggestion of Peter J. McGuire, of the Knights of Labor, that the day be set aside in honor of labor.

• 7th September: First Day of Rosh Hashanah (Jewish New Year) - This day marks the beginning of the Jewish New Year and opens the Ten Days of Penitence, which close with Yom Kippur.

• 16th September: Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement) - This day marks the end of the Ten Days of Penitence that began with Rosh Hashanah. It is described in Leviticus as a “Sabbath of rest,” and synagogue services begin the preceding sundown, resume the following morning, and continue to sundown.

• 21st September: First Day of Sukkot (Feast of Tabernacles) - This festival, also known as the Feast of the Ingathering, originally celebrated the harvest. The name of the festival comes from the booths or tabernacles in which the Jews lived during the harvest, although one tradition traces it to the shelters used by the Jews in their wandering through the wilderness. During the festival many Jews build small huts in their backyards or on the roofs of their houses.

• Last Sunday of September: Simchat Torah (Rejoicing of the Law) - This joyous holiday falls on the eighth day of Sukkot. It marks the end of the year's reading of the Torah (Five Books of Moses) in the synagogue every Saturday and the beginning of the new cycle of reading

• First Monday in October: Columbus Day - A federal holiday,  it commemorates Christopher Columbus's landing in the New World in 1492. Quite likely the first celebration of Columbus Day was that organized in 1792.

• 31st October: Halloween - Eve of All Saints' Day, formerly called All Hallows and Hallowmass. Halloween is traditionally associated in some countries with customs such as bonfires and the telling of ghost stories. The Celts, (that's the name of the people from Gaul and Great Britain) believed, dead spirits would try to possess living people. They also believed that witches, ghosts and other evil spirits roamed the land freely on this night. To scare away the spirits, people dressed in costumes, lit bonfires, placed jack-o-lanterns and other scary decorations in front of their homes. 

• 1st November: All Saints' Day - A Roman Catholic and Anglican holiday celebrating all saints, known and unknown.

• First Tuesday after first Monday in November: Election Day - (legal holiday in certain states). Since 1845, by act of Congress, the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November is the date for choosing presidential electors. State elections are also generally held on this day.

• 6th November: First Day of Ramadan - This day marks the beginning of a month long fast that all Muslims must keep during the daylight hours. It commemorates the first revelation of the Qur'an.

• 11th Novembe: Veterans Day (Armistice Day) - A federal holiday, was established in 1926 to commemorate the signing in 1918 of the armistice ending World War I. On June 1, 1954, the name was changed to Veterans Day to honor all men and women who have served America in its armed forces. Veteran's Day began as Armistice Day. This is the name given to November 11th by President Woodrow Wilson. He proclaimed Armistice Day a day to remember the tragedies of war. Britain and France observe this day to commemorate the end of World war I on November 11, 1918.

• Fourth Thursday in November: Thanksgiving - Holiday by act of Congress (1941), The first Thanksgiving Day was celebrated in the year 1621. The Pilgrims who had come to the New World from England landed at Plymouth Rock, in what is now Massachusetts, on December 26, 1620 after being at sea for almost a year. When the Pilgrims landed in this country they discovered that the grain they brought from England wouldn't grow in the soil of their new home. The first winter was very hard for the early settlers and many people died because of sickness and starvation. The native Indians came to the aid of the Pilgrims and taught them how to plant crops of corn. They also taught the Pilgrims how to hunt and fish. Thanks to the help of the Indians, the settlers' crops in the fall of 1621 did well and there was a great harvest. The Pilgrims decided to have a feast as a way of giving thanks. The Pilgrims invited their friends, the Indians, to share this first Thanksgiving feast which lasted three days.

• 30th November: First Day of Hanukkah (Festival of Lights) - This festival was instituted by Judas Maccabaeus in 165 B.C. to celebrate the purification of the Temple of Jerusalem, which had been desecrated three years earlier by Antiochus Epiphanies, who set up a pagan altar and offered sacrifices to Zeus Olympius. In Jewish homes, a light is lighted on each night of the eight-day festival.

• First Sunday in December: First Sunday of Advent - Advent is the season in which the faithful must prepare themselves for the coming, or advent, of the Savior on Christmas. The four Sundays before Christmas are marked by special church services.

• 25th December: Christmas - The most widely celebrated holiday of the Christian year, Christmas is observed as the anniversary of the birth of Jesus. Christmas customs are centuries old. The mistletoe, for example, comes from the Druids, who, in hanging the mistletoe, hoped for peace and good fortune. Use of such plants as holly comes from the ancient belief that such plants blossomed at Christmas. Comparatively recent is the Christmas tree, first set up in Germany in the 17th century. The use of candles on trees developed from the belief that candles appeared by miracle on the trees at Christmas. Christmas is the only holiday observed in America that is both a legal and a religious holiday. Even though it is a Christian holiday, Christmas is celebrated by almost everybody in the world regardless of religious affiliation.

• As well as national holidays each state may also have their own holidays, as listed below:

State Holidays - Dates for 2002

Jan. 6, Three Kings' Day: P.R.

Jan. 8, Battle of New Orleans Day: La.

Jan. 11, De Hostos's Birthday: P.R.

Jan. 19, Robert E. Lee's Birthday: Ark., Fla., Ky., La., S.C.; (third Mon.): Ala., Miss.

Jan. 19, Confederate Heroes Day: Tex.

Jan. (third Mon.), Lee-Jackson-King Day: Va.

Jan. 30, F. D. Roosevelt's Birthday: Ky.

Feb. 15, Susan B. Anthony's Birthday: Fla., Minn.

March (first Tues.), Town Meeting Day: Vt.

March 2, Texas Independence Day: Tex.

March (first Mon.), Casimir Pulaski's Birthday: Ill.

March 17, Evacuation Day: Mass. (in Suffolk County)

March 20 (first day of spring), Youth Day: Okla.

March 22, Abolition Day: P.R.

March 25, Maryland Day: Md.

March 26, Prince Jonah Kuhio Kalanianaole Day: Hawaii

March (last Mon.), Seward's Day: Alaska

April 2, Pascua Florida Day: Fla.

April 13, Thomas Jefferson's Birthday: Ala., Okla.

April 16, De Diego's Birthday: P.R.

April (third Mon.), Patriots' Day: Maine, Mass.

April 21, San Jacinto Day: Tex.

April 22, Arbor Day: Nebr.

April 22, Oklahoma Day: Okla.

April 26, Confederate Memorial Day: Fla., Ga.

April (fourth Mon.), Fast Day: N.H.

April (last Mon.), Confederate Memorial Day: Ala., Miss.

May 1, Bird Day: Okla.

May 8, Truman Day: Mo.

May 11, Minnesota Day: Minn.

May 20, Mecklenburg Independence Day: N.C.

June (first Mon.), Jefferson Davis's Birthday: Ala., Miss.

June 3, Jefferson Davis's Birthday: Fla., S.C.

June 3, Confederate Memorial Day: Ky., La.

June 9, Senior Citizens Day: Okla.

June 11, King Kamehameha I Day: Hawaii

June 15, Separation Day: Del.

June 17, Bunker Hill Day: Mass. (in Suffolk County)

June 19, Emancipation Day: Tex.

June 20, West Virginia Day: W.Va.

July 17, Muñoz Rivera's Birthday: P.R.

July 24, Pioneer Day: Utah

July 25, Constitution Day: P.R.

July 27, Barbosa's Birthday: P.R.

Aug. (first Sun.), American Family Day: Ariz.

Aug. (first Mon.), Colorado Day: Colo.

Aug. (second Mon.), Victory Day: R.I.

Aug. 16, Bennington Battle Day: Vt.

Aug. (third Friday), Admission Day: Hawaii

Aug. 27, Lyndon B. Johnson's Birthday: Tex.

Aug. 30, Huey P. Long Day: La.

Sept. 9, Admission Day: Calif.

Sept. 12, Defenders' Day: Md.

Sept. 16, Cherokee Strip Day: Okla.

Sept. (first Sat. after full moon), Indian Day: Okla.

Oct. 10, Leif Eriksson Day: Minn.

Oct. 10, Oklahoma Historical Day: Okla.

Oct. 18, Alaska Day: Ala.

Oct. 31, Nevada Day: Nev.

Nov. 4, Will Rogers Day: Okla.

Nov. (week of the 16th), Oklahoma Heritage Week: Okla.

Nov. 19, Discovery Day: P.R.

Dec. 7, Delaware Day: Del.

American Education Systems

• The structure of U.S. education includes 12 years of regular school.

• Duration of school lasts 12 years, until around age 18 (depending on the age at entry). Each of the school years is called a grade, so that 12th grade corresponds to the 12th year, etc.

• Infant school, pre-school, and the first or second year of formal schooling are collectively termed Early Childhood Education in the United States. Formal primary education is called Elementary Education and ranges from first grade through grade 4, 5, or 6, depending on state and district regulations. The upper level of primary education is often organized separately into a unit called Middle School, which begins at grade 4, 5, or 6 and ends at grade 6, 7, or 8. Likewise, the lower grades of secondary education (years 7, 8, or 9 depending on state and district regulations) are sometimes organized separately into what is called Junior High School. Regular (including upper) secondary education is called High School, beginning in grade 8, 9, or 10 and ending at grade 12, again depending on state and district regulations.

• Compulsory schooling ends by law at age 16 in 30 states, at age 17 in 9 states, and at age 18 in 11 states plus the District of Columbia. Students may drop out of school if they have reached the age set in their state's law for the end of compulsory schooling, but dropouts are not considered to have completed school and no certificate or award is issued at this stage. The U.S. dropout rate is just over 11 percent of secondary-level students age 16 and older.

• Two basic school leaving certificates are awarded for completing school, the High School Diploma, awarded to graduates of secondary school, and the GED (General Educational Development) Certificate, awarded to adults who left school but then complete a special supervised study and examination program. High School Diplomas represent a variety of different curricula and standards.

• No national education system or national curriculum exists in the United States. The federal government does not operate schools. 

• Each of the 50 states has its own Department of Education which sets guidelines for the schools of that state. Public colleges and universities receive funding from the state in which they are located.

• Most of the control of American schools lies in the hands of each local school district. Each school district is governed by a school board, a small committee of people elected by the local community. The school board sets general policies for the school district. Students do not pay tuition for schools (under the age of 16).

• High school students take a wide range of courses. All students are required to take English, math, science, and social studies courses. They also might be required to take a foreign language and/or physical education. A course can be one semester or two semesters long. 

• Usually, a student graduates after he or she has successfully passed all of the required courses. Grades are given to students for each course at the end of every semester or term. Grades are: A = Excellent B = Above Average C = Average D = Below Average F = Failure

• Admission to a College/University - A student’s high school grade point average (GPA) is also considered. A GPA is a quantitative figure representing a student’s accumulated grades. Each letter grade is assigned a number of points: A=4 points, B=3, C=2 , D=1, and F= 0 points. A GPA is calculated by adding all of the points earned for each course grade and dividing the total points by the total number of courses taken. For example, a GPA of 3.0 means a “B” average for all of the courses taken. 

• Most colleges and universities set a minimum SAT score that a student must achieve in order to gain admission. The SAT is the Scholastic Aptitude Test, a standardized quantitative examination taken by high school students throughout the United States. Each college or university decides the minimum SAT score it will accept. 

• Higher Education: After finishing high school (twelfth grade), U.S. students may go on to college or university. College or university study is known as "higher education."

• Study at a college or university leading to the Bachelor's Degree is known as "undergraduate" education. Study beyond the Bachelor's Degree is known as "graduate" school, or "postgraduate" education. Advanced or graduate degrees include law, medicine, the M.B.A., and the Ph.D. (doctorate). 

• Church-related School: Many U.S. colleges and universities were founded by religious groups. The relationship, however, between the school and the religious organization may be very flexible. Sometimes, these schools prefer to admit students who are members of the sponsoring religious group. Nearly all these schools welcome students of all religions and beliefs. 

SCHOOL EDUCATION:

• PRESCHOOL (or nursery schools) these specialize in teaching very young children (ages 3-5) to adjust to groups outside home and family and prepare them for the routine of formal schooling.

• There are basically two levels of education. The elementary level begins with the first grade when the child is about six. This level extends to the eighth grade when the child is about thirteen. The secondary level begins with the ninth grade when the child is about 14 and continues to the twelfth grade when the child is about eighteen.

• The traditional division is:

  Elementary school = grades 1 to 3/4 
  Middle school = grades 4 to 6/7
  Junior high school = grades 6/7 to 8/9 
  Senior high school = grades 9/10 to 12

• PUBLIC SCHOOLS (government supported). They provide tax-supported schooling free of charge to students beginning with kindergarten at age 5 and continuing from 1st to 12th grades, when students receive a high-school diploma.

• Different schools divide the 12 years into various stages. Most common are the 6-3-3, consisting of 6 years of elementary school, 3 years of junior high, and 3 of high school; and the 6-2-4, consisting of 2 years of junior high and 4 years of high school. These years are referred to as freshman (9th), sophomore (10th) , junior (11th), and senior (12th). There is no division into academic or vocational A streams. Instead, junior and senior high schools offer a wide variety of courses, some of which are required of all students, the others elective (elected by the student).

• PRIVATE SCHOOLS. They do not receive tax monies and therefore charge tuition fees. These schools provide for a number of special needs not always met adequately in the public schools. For instance, many private schools are supported by churches or synagogues and provide religious education as opposed to the secular education provided by public schools. The Catholic Church operates the largest number of schools outside the public school system. These parochial schools are open to children of all faiths, but they give preference to Catholics. There are also schools associated with various Protestant churches, Seventh-Day Adventists and Society of Friends (Quakers), as well as schools serving those of the Jewish and Muslim faiths.

COLLEGES, UNIVERSITIES, AND INSTITUTES:

• Degree-granting institutions in the United States can be called by any of these terms, and colleges and institutes are in no way inferior to universities. As a general rule, colleges tend to be smaller and usually offer only undergraduate degrees, while a university also offers graduate degrees. An institute usually specializes in degree programs in a group of closely related subject areas, so you will also come across degree programs offered at institutes of technology, institutes of fashion, institutes of art and design, and so on. 

• Within each college or university you will find schools, such as the school of arts and sciences or the school of business. Each school is responsible for the degree programs offered by the college or university in that area of study.

• One of the most attractive features of the bachelor's degree program in the United States is that it is highly flexible. You can usually choose from a wide variety of courses and create your own unique program of study. The degree is awarded after you complete a specified number of credits.

• The bachelor's degree typically takes four years to complete. The associate degree usually takes two years to complete. Associate degree programs may be "terminal" programs, which lead into specific careers upon graduation, or "transfer" programs, which correspond to the first two years of a bachelor's degree and tend to be more liberal arts based. Associate degree programs are offered at two-year colleges known as junior or community colleges. Four-year colleges and universities offer bachelor's degree programs, with a small number also offering associate degree programs. 

• Liberal arts is a shortened form of the term "liberal arts and sciences," and the liberal arts philosophy is a unique feature of the U.S. higher education system. U.S. undergraduate education is based on this concept, which believes in providing a well-rounded academic education that develops the student's verbal, written, and reasoning skills. Students at a liberal arts college, or at a university with a strong liberal arts program, begin their degree study by taking classes in a wide variety of courses in the arts, humanities, languages, and the social and physical sciences. They then choose a subject in which to specialize (called a major) and take about 25 to 50 percent of their classes in the major area.

• Professional (that is, career-oriented) education is included within the U.S. university system. Large universities tend to be comprised of a college of arts and sciences and several professional schools - usually business, agriculture, medicine, law, and journalism.

• There are four types of degrees: 

  Associate’s (completion of a program in a specific career field),
  Bachelor’s (conferred after completion of an undergraduate program),
  Master’s (first graduate degree)
  Doctorate (second graduate degree and final degree). 

• State College or University: A state school is supported and run by a state or local government. Each of the 50 U.S. states operates at least one state university and possibly several state colleges. Some state schools have the word "State" in their names. 

• Private College or University: These schools are operated privately, not by a branch of the government. Tuition will usually be higher than at state schools. Often, private colleges and universities are smaller in size than state schools. 

• Two-Year College: A two-year college admits high school graduates and awards an Associate's Degree. Some two-year colleges are state-supported, or public; others are private. Two-year college or "junior" college graduates usually transfer to four-year colleges or universities, where they complete the Bachelor's Degree in two or more additional years. 

• Community College: This is a two-year state, or public college. Community colleges serve a local community, usually a city or county. Many of the students are commuters who live at home, or evening students who work during the day. Often, community colleges welcome international students.

• Professional School: A professional school trains students in fields such as art, music, engineering, business, and other professions. Some are part of universities. Others are separate schools. Some offer graduate degrees. 

• Institute of Technology: This is a school which offers at least four years of study in science and technology. Some institutes of technology have graduate programs. Others offer shorter courses. 

• Technical Institute: A technical institute trains students in fields such as medical technology or industrial engineering. Although the course may prepare you for the career you want, the degree may or may not be equivalent to a college or university degree. Some colleges and universities do not accept credits from students who have attended technical institutes and want to transfer. If you are considering a technical institute, find out if your government, and U.S. colleges and universities, accept the school's degree.

• Distance education is an increasingly popular way to study for everything from a short professional course to a graduate degree in the United States, and there are numerous institutions offering undergraduate degree programs using distance education teaching methods. Under the distance education model, students no longer attend classes in a classroom on a campus; instead, classes are delivered "from a distance" through the use of technologies such as the Internet, satellite television, video conferencing, and other means of electronic delivery.

• U.S. students usually study a wide variety of subjects while in college. Many students do not specialize exclusively in one field until graduate school.  Students in the first year are called "freshmen," and they are "sophomores" in the second year. Some schools require freshmen and sophomores to take courses in different areas of learning: literature, science, the social sciences, the arts, history, and so forth. Freshmen and sophomores are known as "underclassmen." 

• The "junior" and "senior," or third and fourth years, are the "upper classes." Students in these years are known as "juniors" and "seniors"- "upperclassmen." When they enter their junior year, they must choose a "major" field of study. They must take a certain number of courses in this department, or field. In some schools, students also choose a "minor" field. There is usually time for students to choose several other "elective" (extra) courses in other subjects. 

• Classes range from large lectures for several hundred students to smaller classes and "seminars" (discussion classes) with only a few students. Students enrolled in lecture courses are often divided into smaller groups, or "sections." The sections meet separately to discuss the lecture topics and other material. 

• Professors usually assign textbook and other readings each week. They also require several written reports each semester (term). You will be expected to keep up to date with the required readings in order to join in class discussions and to understand the lectures. Science students are also expected to spend time in the laboratory. 

• The school calendar usually begins in August or September and continues through May or June.

• The academic year at many schools is composed of two terms or semesters. Other schools use a three-term calendar known as the "trimester" system. Still others divide the year into the "quarter" system of four terms, including a summer session which is optional. 

• Credits: Each course is considered to be worth a number of "credits" or "credit hours." This number is roughly the same as the number of hours a student spends in class for that course each week. A course is typically worth three to five credits. 

• Transfers: If a student enrolls in a new university before finishing a degree, usually most credits earned at the first school can be used to complete a degree at the new university. This means a student can transfer to another university and still graduate within a reasonable time. 

• Professors give each student a mark or "grade" for each course. The marks are based upon: 

• Classroom participation: Discussion, questions, conversation; Students are expected to participate in class discussions, especially in seminar classes. This is often a very important factor in determining a student's grade. 

• A midterm examination: Usually given during class time. 

• One or more research or term papers, or laboratory reports. 

• Possible short exams or "quizzes.": Sometimes the professor will give an unannounced "surprise quiz." This doesn't count heavily toward the grade but is intended to inspire students to keep up with their assignments and attendance. 

• Final examination: Held some time after the final class meeting. 

• Most universities will also offer some sort of honors degree. To qualify for an honors degree, you must fulfill additional credits or write an honors thesis; precise details depend upon the university and/or academic department. 

• The individual courses that make up the degree program can be divided into the following types:

• · Core courses: These provide the foundation of the degree program and are required of all students. Students take a variety of courses in mathematics, English, humanities, physical sciences, and social sciences. Some colleges require students to take many core courses, while other schools require only a few.

• · Major courses: A major is the subject in which a student chooses to concentrate. Most students major in one subject; however, some colleges offer the option of pursuing a double major with a related subject. Your major courses represent one-quarter to one-half of the total number of courses required to complete a degree.

• · Minor courses: A minor is a subject in which a student may choose to take the second greatest concentration of courses. The number of courses required for a minor tends to be half the number of major courses.

• · Elective courses: These courses may be chosen from any department. They offer opportunities to explore other topics or subjects you may be interested in and help make up the total number of credits required to graduate.

• An important indicator of the quality of any U.S. college or university is its accreditation status. Unlike many other countries, the United States does not have a central government office that approves educational institutions. Instead, it relies on a system of voluntary accreditation carried out by non-governmental accrediting bodies to ensure that schools meet standards. 

• Most U.S. colleges offer students a variety of social, cultural, and sports activities in addition to their academic programs. The level to which each is emphasized will determine the social environment you will find on your campus. You should also consider whether the majority of the students live on or off a university campus. At colleges referred to as commuter schools, most students live off campus and commute to classes.

• A unique feature of U.S. campus life is the Greek system, which offers students the choice of joining a fraternity or sorority. (The term "Greek" is used because the names of fraternities and sororities are composed of two or three Greek letters.) Fraternities (male) and sororities (female) can be the focus of undergraduate social life on many U.S. campuses. However, as well as holding parties, fraternities and sororities often sponsor activities.

• U.S. universities offer many opportunities for students to develop skills through extracurricular activities such as sports teams, academic clubs, university newspapers, drama productions, and other rewarding programs.

• Rankings - There is no official list of the top 10, 20, 50, or even 100 universities in the United States. The U.S. government does not rank universities. Rankings that you come across are usually produced by journalists and are likely to be subjective.

• Internship or Overseas Study Programs - Many U.S. universities have incorporated into their curriculum internship (voluntary or paid work placements) or overseas study ("study abroad") programs.

• Master's Degree: This degree is usually required in fields such as library science, engineering, or social work. The M.B.A., or Master of Business Administration, is an extremely popular degree that usually takes two years. Some Master's programs, such as journalism, only take one year. 

• Doctorate (Ph.D.): Many graduate schools consider the Master's Degree as the first step towards attaining the Ph.D. (doctorate). But at other schools, students may prepare directly for the doctorate without also earning a Master's Degree. It may take three years or more to earn the Ph.D. Degree.

• For the first two years, most doctoral candidates enroll in classes and seminars. For at least another year, students will conduct firsthand research and write a thesis or dissertation. This paper must contain views, designs, or research that have not been previously published. 

Class Format:

• The Lecture - This is perhaps the most common university class format.  In a lecture class, the professor usually teaches according to a prepared outline (syllabus).  During the lecture, which may be supplemented by films or other visual materials, it is important for you to take notes and write down the information emphasized by the professor.  This information will most likely be included on the course examination.  Since lecture classes are usually large (ranging in size from 25-50 or more students), any questions you ask should be directly related to the content being discussed.

• The Independent Study - This type of course is usually available to upper-classmen or graduate-level students.  You decide what you want to study and design a plan with a faculty member.  You must find a faculty member to supervise and evaluate your activity.  The requirements of the independent study most often include extensive reading, research or experimentation on a specific subject which will lead to a written report at the end of the semester.  This, however, is an individual decision between you and a faculty member.

• The Lecture/Discussion - Many large lecture courses offer you smaller once-a-week discussion groups which provide you with the opportunity to ask more detailed questions and to discuss the topics being covered in class.  This discussion group is usually led by the professor or a graduate assistant and is designed to help you understand the material covered in the lecture.

• The Lab - The laboratory (lab) classes are important part of many science and computer courses.  The lab is used to apply the theories learned in the classroom to practical problems.  A lab usually meets once a week for several hours during which time you work on various projects and experiments.  Since the lab is conducted in addition to the regular class, you usually receive one extra academic credit for this work.  The lab is usually kept separate for registration, testing and grading process.

• The Seminar - A Seminar consists of a small group of students (usually fewer than 20) and is primarily designed for upper-division and graduate-level courses.  This type of class involves open discussions and you are often required to prepare presentations for the seminar based on your independent study or research.  Another type of seminar is one which involves listening to a speaker and is for personal enrichment.  In this instance, all that is required is your attendance.

• Grades

A-    Superior 
B-    Above average 
C-    Average 
D-    Passing but below average 
F-     Failure-no credit give 

• Regular class attendance is required by the University.  You are responsible for class attendance and any work you miss due to absence.

The American Economy

 

• Monetary policy is the responsibility of the Federal Reserve System, an independent U.S. government agency. "The Fed," as it is commonly known, includes 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks and 25 Federal Reserve Bank branches.

• Money takes many different forms, in its most basic form, money consists of coins and paper currency. Coins come in various denominations based on the value of a dollar: the penny, which is worth one cent or one-hundredth of a dollar; the nickel, five cents; the dime, 10 cents; the quarter, 25 cents; the half dollar, 50 cents; and the dollar coin. Paper money comes in denominations of $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100.

• A more important component of the money supply consists of checking deposits, or bookkeeping entries held in banks and other financial institutions. Individuals can make payments by writing checks, which essentially instruct their banks to pay given sums to the checks' recipients. Time deposits are similar to checking deposits except the owner agrees to leave the sum on deposit for a specified period. Money also includes money market funds, which are shares in pools of short-term securities, as well as a variety of other assets that can be converted easily into currency on short notice.

How the U.S. Economy Works:

• The United States is often described as a "capitalist" economy, a term coined by 19th-century German economist and social theorist Karl Marx to describe a system in which a small group of people who control large amounts of money, or capital, make the most important economic decisions. Marx contrasted capitalist economies to "socialist" ones, which vest more power in the political system.

• The American economy is perhaps better described as a "mixed" economy, with government playing an important role along with private enterprise.

• The United States is rich in mineral resources and fertile farm soil, and it is blessed with a moderate climate. It also has extensive coastlines on both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, as well as on the Gulf of Mexico. Rivers flow from far within the continent, and the Great Lakes -- five large, inland lakes along the U.S. border with Canada -- provide additional shipping access. These extensive waterways have helped shape the country's economic growth over the years and helped bind America's 50 individual states together in a single economic unit.

• The number of available workers and, more importantly, their productivity help determine the health of an economy. Throughout its history, the United States has experienced steady growth in the labor force, and that, in turn, has helped fuel almost constant economic expansion. Until shortly after World War I, most workers were immigrants from Europe, their immediate descendants, or African-Americans whose ancestors were brought to the Americas as slaves. 

• The United States is said to have a mixed economy because privately owned businesses and government both play important roles. The American free enterprise system emphasizes private ownership. Private businesses produce most goods and services, and almost two-thirds of the nation's total economic output goes to individuals for personal use (the remaining one-third is bought by government and business).

• This emphasis on private ownership arises, in part, from American beliefs about personal freedom. From the time the nation was created, Americans have feared excessive government power, and they have sought to limit government's authority over individuals -- including its role in the economy.

• There are limits to free enterprise, however. Americans have always believed that some services are better performed by public rather than private enterprise. For instance, in the United States, government is primarily responsible for the administration of justice, education (although there are many private schools and training centers), the road system, social statistical reporting, and national defense. In addition, government often is asked to intervene in the economy to correct situations in which the price system does not work. It regulates "natural monopolies," for example, and it uses antitrust laws to control or break up other business combinations that become so powerful that they can surmount market forces.

• Government also provides welfare and unemployment benefits to people who cannot support themselves, either because they encounter problems in their personal lives or lose their jobs as a result of economic upheaval; it pays much of the cost of medical care for the aged and those who live in poverty; it regulates private industry to limit air and water pollution; it provides low-cost loans to people who suffer losses as a result of natural disasters; and it has played the leading role in the exploration of space, which is too expensive for any private enterprise to handle.

Government's Role in the Economy:

• Stabilization and Growth. Perhaps most importantly, the federal government guides the overall pace of economic activity, attempting to maintain steady growth, high levels of employment, and price stability. By adjusting spending and tax rates (fiscal policy) or managing the money supply and controlling the use of credit (monetary policy), it can slow down or speed up the economy's rate of growth -- in the process, affecting the level of prices and employment.

• Regulation and Control. The U.S. federal government regulates private enterprise in numerous ways. Regulation falls into two general categories. Economic regulation seeks, either directly or indirectly, to control prices. Traditionally, the government has sought to prevent monopolies such as electric utilities from raising prices beyond the level that would ensure them reasonable profits. Another form of economic regulation, antitrust law, seeks to strengthen market forces so that direct regulation is unnecessary. The government -- and, sometimes, private parties -- have used antitrust law to prohibit practices or mergers that would unduly limit competition.

• Direct Services. Each level of government provides many direct services. The federal government, for example, is responsible for national defense, backs research that often leads to the development of new products, conducts space exploration, and runs numerous programs designed to help workers develop workplace skills and find jobs. State governments, meanwhile, are responsible for the construction and maintenance of most highways. State, county, or city governments play the leading role in financing and operating public schools. Local governments are primarily responsible for police and fire protection.

• Growth of Government Intervention. Many laws and regulations have been enacted since the 1930s to protect workers and consumers further. It is against the law for employers to discriminate in hiring on the basis of age, sex, race, or religious belief. Child labor generally is prohibited. Independent labor unions are guaranteed the right to organize, bargain, and strike. The government issues and enforces workplace safety and health codes. Nearly every product sold in the United States is affected by some kind of government regulation: food manufacturers must tell exactly what is in a can or box or jar; no drug can be sold until it is thoroughly tested; automobiles must be built according to safety standards and must meet pollution standards; prices for goods must be clearly marked; and advertisers cannot mislead consumers.

The U.S. Economy: A Brief History:

• The modern American economy traces its roots to the quest of European settlers for economic gain in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. The New World then progressed from a marginally successful colonial economy to a small, independent farming economy and, eventually, to a highly complex industrial economy. During this evolution, the United States developed ever more complex institutions to match its growth. And while government involvement in the economy has been a consistent theme, the extent of that involvement generally has increased.

• North America's first inhabitants were Native Americans -- indigenous peoples who are believed to have traveled to America about 20,000 years earlier across a land bridge from Asia, where the Bering Strait is today. (They were mistakenly called "Indians" by European explorers, who thought they had reached India when first landing in the Americas.) These native peoples were organized in tribes and, in some cases, confederations of tribes. While they traded among themselves, they had little contact with peoples on other continents, even with other native peoples in South America, before European settlers began arriving. What economic systems they did develop were destroyed by the Europeans who settled their lands.

• In 1492, Christopher Columbus, an Italian sailing under the Spanish flag, set out to find a southwest passage to Asia and discovered a "New World." For the next 100 years, English, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and French explorers sailed from Europe for the New World, looking for gold, riches, honor, and glory. But the North American wilderness offered early explorers little glory and less gold, so most did not stay. The people who eventually did settle North America arrived later. In 1607, a band of Englishmen built the first permanent settlement in what was to become the United States.

• Early settlers had a variety of reasons for seeking a new homeland. The Pilgrims of Massachusetts were pious, self-disciplined English people who wanted to escape religious persecution. Other colonies, such as Virginia, were founded principally as business ventures. Often, though, piety and profits went hand-in-hand.

• By 1770, the North American colonies were ready, both economically and politically, to become part of the emerging self-government movement that had dominated English politics since the time of James I (1603-1625). Disputes developed with England over taxation and other matters; Americans hoped for a modification of English taxes and regulations that would satisfy their demand for more self-government. Few thought the mounting quarrel with the English government would lead to all-out war against the British and to independence for the colonies.

• Like the English political turmoil of the 17th and 18th centuries, the American Revolution (1775-1783) was both political and economic, bolstered by an emerging middle class with a rallying cry of "unalienable rights to life, liberty, and property" -- a phrase openly borrowed from English philosopher John Locke's Second Treatise on Civil Government (1690). The war was triggered by an event in April 1775. British soldiers, intending to capture a colonial arms depot at Concord, Massachusetts, clashed with colonial militiamen. Someone -- no one knows exactly who -- fired a shot, and eight years of fighting began. While political separation from England may not have been the majority of colonists' original goal, independence and the creation of a new nation -- the United States -- was the ultimate result.

• The U.S. Constitution, adopted in 1787 and in effect to this day, was in many ways a work of creative genius. As an economic charter, it established that the entire nation -- stretching then from Maine to Georgia, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi Valley -- was a unified, or "common," market. There were to be no tariffs or taxes on interstate commerce. The Constitution provided that the federal government could regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, establish uniform bankruptcy laws, create money and regulate its value, fix standards of weights and measures, establish post offices and roads, and fix rules governing patents and copyrights. The last-mentioned clause was an early recognition of the importance of "intellectual property," a matter that would assume great importance in trade negotiations in the late 20th century.

• Although early American farmers feared that a national bank would serve the rich at the expense of the poor, the first National Bank of the United States was chartered in 1791; it lasted until 1811, after which a successor bank was chartered.

• The Industrial Revolution began in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, and it quickly spread to the United States. By 1860, when Abraham Lincoln was elected president, 16 percent of the U.S. population lived in urban areas, and a third of the nation's income came from manufacturing.

• Northern victory in the U.S. Civil War (1861-1865), however, sealed the destiny of the nation and its economic system. The slave-labor system was abolished, making the large southern cotton plantations much less profitable. Northern industry, which had expanded rapidly because of the demands of the war, surged ahead. Industrialists came to dominate many aspects of the nation's life, including social and political affairs. The planter aristocracy of the South, portrayed sentimentally 70 years later in the film classic Gone with the Wind, disappeared.

• The rapid economic development following the Civil War laid the groundwork for the modern U.S. industrial economy. An explosion of new discoveries and inventions took place, causing such profound changes that some termed the results a "second industrial revolution." Oil was discovered in western Pennsylvania. The typewriter was developed. Refrigeration railroad cars came into use. The telephone, phonograph, and electric light were invented. And by the dawn of the 20th century, cars were replacing carriages and people were flying in airplanes.

• As the American economy matured in the 20th century, however, the freewheeling business mogul lost luster as an American ideal. The crucial change came with the emergence of the corporation, which appeared first in the railroad industry and then elsewhere. Business barons were replaced by "technocrats," high-salaried managers who became the heads of corporations. The rise of the corporation triggered, in turn, the rise of an organized labor movement that served as a countervailing force to the power and influence of business.

•  The technological revolution of the 1980s and 1990s brought a new entrepreneurial culture that echoes of the age of tycoons. Bill Gates, the head of Microsoft, built an immense fortune developing and selling computer software. Gates carved out an empire so profitable that by the late 1990s, his company was taken into court and accused of intimidating rivals and creating a monopoly by the U.S. Justice Department's antitrust division. But Gates also established a charitable foundation that quickly became the largest of its kind.

The Postwar Economy: 1945-1960:

• Many Americans feared that the end of World War II and the subsequent drop in military spending might bring back the hard times of the Great Depression. But instead, pent-up consumer demand fueled exceptionally strong economic growth in the postwar period. The automobile industry successfully converted back to producing cars, and new industries such as aviation and electronics grew by leaps and bounds. A housing boom, stimulated in part by easily affordable mortgages for returning members of the military, added to the expansion.

• The jump in postwar births, known as the "baby boom," increased the number of consumers. More and more Americans joined the middle class.

• The United States recognized during the postwar period the need to restructure international monetary arrangements, spearheading the creation of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank -- institutions designed to ensure an open, capitalist international economy.

• Business, meanwhile, entered a period marked by consolidation. Firms merged to create huge, diversified conglomerates. International Telephone and Telegraph, for instance, bought Sheraton Hotels, Continental Banking, Hartford Fire Insurance, Avis Rent-a-Car, and other companies.

• Growing demand for single-family homes and the widespread ownership of cars led many Americans to migrate from central cities to suburbs. Coupled with technological innovations such as the invention of air conditioning, the migration spurred the development of "Sun Belt" cities such as Houston, Atlanta, Miami, and Phoenix in the southern and southwestern states. As new, federally sponsored highways created better access to the suburbs, business patterns began to change as well. Shopping centers multiplied, rising from eight at the end of World War II to 3,840 in 1960. Many industries soon followed, leaving cities for less crowded sites.

Years of Change: The 1960s and 1970s:

• The 1960s and 1970s were a time of great change. New nations emerged around the world, insurgent movements sought to overthrow existing governments, established countries grew to become economic powerhouses that rivaled the United States, and economic relationships came to predominate in a world that increasingly recognized military might could not be the only means of growth and expansion.

• President John F. Kennedy (1961-1963) ushered in a more activist approach to governing. During his 1960 presidential campaign, Kennedy said he would ask Americans to meet the challenges of the "New Frontier." As president, he sought to accelerate economic growth by increasing government spending and cutting taxes, and he pressed for medical help for the elderly, aid for inner cities, and increased funds for education. Many of these proposals were not enacted, although Kennedy's vision of sending Americans abroad to help developing nations did materialize with the creation of the Peace Corps. Kennedy also stepped up American space exploration. After his death, the American space program surpassed Soviet achievements and culminated in the landing of American astronauts on the moon in July 1969.

• Kennedy's assassination in 1963 spurred Congress to enact much of his legislative agenda. His successor, Lyndon Baines Johnson (1963-1969), sought to build a "Great Society" by spreading benefits of America's successful economy to more citizens. Federal spending increased dramatically, as the government launched such new programs as Medicare (health care for the elderly), Food Stamps (food assistance for the poor), and numerous education initiatives (assistance to students as well as grants to schools and colleges).

• Military spending also increased as American's presence in Vietnam grew. What had started as a small military action under Kennedy mushroomed into a major military initiative during Johnson's presidency. Ironically, spending on both wars -- the war on poverty and the fighting war in Vietnam -- contributed to prosperity in the short term. But by the end of the 1960s, the government's failure to raise taxes to pay for these efforts led to accelerating inflation, which eroded this prosperity. The 1973-1974 oil embargo by members of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) pushed energy prices rapidly higher and created shortages. Even after the embargo ended, energy prices stayed high, adding to inflation and eventually causing rising rates of unemployment. Federal budget deficits grew, foreign competition intensified, and the stock market sagged.

• The Vietnam War dragged on until 1975, President Richard Nixon (1969-1973) resigned under a cloud of impeachment charges, and a group of Americans were taken hostage at the U.S. embassy in Teheran and held for more than a year. The nation seemed unable to control events, including economic affairs. America's trade deficit swelled as low-priced and frequently high-quality imports of everything from automobiles to steel to semiconductors flooded into the United States.

• But the most important element in the war against inflation was the Federal Reserve Board, which clamped down hard on the money supply beginning in 1979. By refusing to supply all the money an inflation-ravaged economy wanted, the Fed caused interest rates to rise. As a result, consumer spending and business borrowing slowed abruptly. The economy soon fell into a deep recession.

The Economy in the 1980s:

• The nation endured a deep recession throughout 1982. Business bankruptcies rose 50 percent over the previous year. Farmers were especially hard hit, as agricultural exports declined, crop prices fell, and interest rates rose. But while the medicine of a sharp slowdown was hard to swallow, it did break the destructive cycle in which the economy had been caught. By 1983, inflation had eased, the economy had rebounded, and the United States began a sustained period of economic growth. The annual inflation rate remained under 5 percent throughout most of the 1980s and into the 1990s.

• The American people expressed their discontent with federal policies by turning out Carter in 1980 and electing former Hollywood actor and California governor Ronald Reagan as president. Reagan (1981-1989) based his economic program on the theory of supply-side economics, which advocated reducing tax rates so people could keep more of what they earned.

The 1990s and Beyond:

• The 1990s brought a new president, Bill Clinton (1993-2000). A cautious, moderate Democrat, Clinton sounded some of the same themes as his predecessors. After unsuccessfully urging Congress to enact an ambitious proposal to expand health-insurance coverage, Clinton declared that the era of "big government" was over in America.

• With the fall of the Soviet Union and Eastern European communism in the late 1980s, trade opportunities expanded greatly. Technological developments brought a wide range of sophisticated new electronic products. Innovations in telecommunications and computer networking spawned a vast computer hardware and software industry and revolutionized the way many industries operate. The economy grew rapidly, and corporate earnings rose rapidly. Combined with low inflation and low unemployment, strong profits sent the stock market surging; the Dow Jones Industrial Average, which had stood at just 1,000 in the late 1970s, hit the 11,000 mark in 1999, adding substantially to the wealth of many -- though not all -- Americans.

• Clinton, like his predecessors, had continued to push for elimination of trade barriers. A North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) had further increased economic ties between the United States and its largest trading partners, Canada and Mexico. Asia, which had grown especially rapidly during the 1980s, joined Europe as a major supplier of finished goods and a market for American exports. Sophisticated worldwide telecommunications systems linked the world's financial markets in a way unimaginable even a few years earlier.

• Poverty and Inequality - Americans are proud of their economic system, believing it provides opportunities for all citizens to have good lives. Their faith is clouded, however, by the fact that poverty persists in many parts of the country. Government anti-poverty efforts have made some progress but have not eradicated the problem. Similarly, periods of strong economic growth, which bring more jobs and higher wages, have helped reduce poverty but have not eliminated it entirely.

Tax Policies:

• The federal government's chief source of funds to cover its expenses is the income tax on individuals, which in 1999 brought in about 48 percent of total federal revenues. Payroll taxes, which finance the Social Security and Medicare programs, have become increasingly important as those programs have grown. In 1998, payroll taxes accounted for one-third of all federal revenues; employers and workers each had to pay an amount equal to 7.65 percent of their wages up to $68,400 a year. The federal government raises another 10 percent of its revenue from a tax on corporate profits, while miscellaneous other taxes account for the remainder of its income. (Local governments, in contrast, generally collect most of their tax revenues from property taxes. State governments traditionally have depended on sales and excise taxes, but state income taxes have grown more important since World War II.)

• From the outset, the income tax has been a progressive levy, meaning that rates are higher for people with more income. Most Democrats favor a high degree of progress, arguing that it is only fair to make people with more income pay more in taxes. Many Republicans, however, believe a steeply progressive rate structure discourages people from working and investing, and therefore hurts the overall economy. Accordingly, many Republicans argue for a more uniform rate structure. Some even suggest a uniform, or "flat," tax rate for everybody.

•  Over the years, lawmakers have carved out various exemptions and deductions from the income tax to encourage specific kinds of economic activity. Most notably, taxpayers are allowed to subtract from their taxable income any interest they must pay on loans used to buy homes. Similarly, the government allows lower- and middle-income taxpayers to shelter from taxation certain amounts of money that they save in special Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs) to meet their retirement expenses and to pay for their children's college education.

• The Tax Reform Act of 1986, perhaps the most substantial reform of the U.S. tax system since the beginning of the income tax, reduced income tax rates while cutting back many popular income tax deductions (the home mortgage deduction and IRA deductions were preserved, however). The Tax Reform Act replaced the previous law's 15 tax brackets, which had a top tax rate of 50 percent, with a system that had only two tax brackets -- 15 percent and 28 percent. Other provisions reduced, or eliminated, income taxes for millions of low-income Americans.

Stocks, Commodities and Markets:

• Historically, virtually every major US city once had a stock market, but by the 1990s there were only three major markets: New York, Chicago, and San Francisco. Local markets persisted in such cities as Boston, Massachusetts, and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, but trading was limited. 

• The modern markets, particularly those in New York and Chicago, rely heavily on computerization each day to process millions of transactions. But also, in part, it is a matter of tradition and experience. The stock market works largely on one broker's trust in another broker's word. The brokers, in turn depend on the faith of the customers they represent.

• The principles of this market are similar to all others. For every buyer there has to be a seller. When more people wish to buy than to sell, the price tends to rise; when fewer people wish to buy and many wish to sell, the price tends to fall. 

• Once a company has sold its original stock to the public and it is traded freely in the market, the price will be determined continuously during the trading day by what buyers will pay and what sellers will take. It is simply a matter of supply and demand.

• When a company makes money it usually pays a part of its earnings to its shareholders in the form of dividends. A typical payout is about 50 percent of the earnings. 

• Each year every stockholder receives an annual report about the company in which he or she has an investment. These annual reports have changed much over the last 20 or 30 years. Previously, the typical report would consist of a general discussion of the health of the company, without any comparisons to previous years. Now virtually all major corporations give very detailed reports. They provide easy-to-read charts and summaries, usually covering a 10-year period. A certified public accounting firm, after performing an audit, certifies that the figures and statements about the finances reflect generally accepted accounting principles. In addition to this information, company executives are required to disclose the extent of their holdings in the company. The entire process is supervised in great detail by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), often described as a "watchdog" agency of the federal government. 

• While there are literally thousands of stocks, the ones bought and sold most actively are usually listed on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE). The exchange dates back to 1792 when a group of stockbrokers gathered on Wall Street in New York City to make some rules about how buying and selling was to be done. The NYSE has become the leading exchange in the United States, but the American Stock Exchange also operates in the same Wall Street area, and in much the same way, but on a smaller scale. 

• The largest security market in the world in terms of the number of different stocks and bonds traded is the over-the-counter (OTC) market. OTC is not located in any one place, but is primarily an electronic communications network of stock and bond dealers. These stocks are supervised by the National Association of Securities Dealers, Inc., which has the power to expel companies or dealers determined to be dishonest or insolvent. The over-the-counter market tends to get stocks of smaller companies, and by the 1990s had come to be known as a market where many of the fastest growing "high-technology" stocks could be bought and sold.

• The prices of commodities -- such as crops, livestock and such metals as copper, gold, lead and tin -- tend to fluctuate from one period of time to the next. Commodity traders fall into two broad categories: hedgers and speculators. Hedgers are business firms (or individuals) that enter into a commodity contract to be assured access to the commodity at a guaranteed price. A firm secures a needed commodity and is protected against price fluctuation. Thousands of individuals, in contrast, trade in commodity futures as speculators. 

• The main index measuring market activity in the United States is called the Dow-Jones Industrial Average (normally referred to as simply the Dow Jones)

 

"CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES": The peace treaty of 1783 recognised the independence of the United States and established the individual states. Once the states were established it was unclear about the relationship between each of the states, therefore a constitution was needed.

After the War of Independence the United States was not one nation, each state had its own government, with its own laws and policies. A plan was then drawn up called the "Constitution of the United States." This proposed an elected leader or president, it also proposed a central system for making laws and court systems. The constitution did not have any reference to the freedoms or basic rights of citizens, therefore in 1791 a "Bill of Rights" was added to the constitution. The government which was formed was divided up into three parts. The Executive, Legislative and Judicial. 

LEGISLATIVE BRANCH: The Legislative branch is made up of elected representatives from each of the states. It makes federal laws and taxes and is the only branch of government which can declare war or put foreign treaties into effect. It consists of a "Congress" which is made up of two houses:

The House of Representatives: This is made up of lawmakers who serve for 2 years. Each member represents their home district from their state. The number of districts in a state depends on the population.

The Senate: This is made up of lawmakers who serve for 6 years. Each state has two senators. Every 2 years one third of the Senate are re-elected, therefore there are always experienced senators working in government.

The main duty of Congress is to make laws. A law begins with a proposal, called a "Bill", it is then studied in committees, then amended in the Senate or House chamber in which it was introduced. It is then voted upon, if it passes it is then sent to another house where the same process takes place. When both houses of Congress pass the Bill it is sent to the president for signature, once signed it becomes law.

EXECUTIVE BRANCH: The chief executive of the United States is the president. Every four years there is an election for the president and vice president. Under an amendment to the Constitution in 1951, a president can only be elected for two terms. The job of president allows the formulation of public policy, allows a vito of bills, can appoint judges, has powers to issue regulations and directives regarding the work of the federal governments departments and the president is also the commander of the armed forces. The presidents cabinet of office is made up of 13 departments: State, Treasury, Defense, Justice, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, Health and Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy and Education.

JUDICIAL BRANCH: The head of the Judicial branch is the Supreme Court, which is the only court created by the Constitution. Congress has established 11 federal courts of appeal and 91 district federal courts. Federal judges are appointed for life or voluntary retirement, and can only be removed from the office through the process of impeachment and trial in the Congress.

THE BILL OF RIGHTS (1791): This is made up of 10 short paragraphs which guarantee freedom and individual rights to all Americans. In the Bill of Rights, Americans have the right to freedom of religion, freedom of speech and freedom of the press (media). They have the right to assemble in public places, to protest government actions and demand changes. They have the right to own weapons. The Bill of Rights also guarantees a quick trial for any crimes.

POLITICAL PARTIES: The United States have two main political parties, the Democratic party and the Republican party. The Democratic party was established before 1800 and now uses the donkey as its symbol. The Republican party was formed in 1850 and uses the symbol of an elephant.

FAMOUS AMERICAN PRESIDENTS

Kennedy, John F. (Fitzgerald) (nickname JFK)  1917 - 1963: Statesman and 35th U.S. president (1961-63), born on May 29, 1917, in Brookline, Massachusetts; the second of Joseph and Rose Kennedy's nine children. Kennedy was the youngest man elected president of the United States, dying from an assassin’s bullet after serving less than one term in office. 

On November 22, 1963, Kennedy was assassinated by rifle fire while being driven in an open car through Dallas, Texas. The alleged assassin, 24-year-old Lee Harvey Oswald, was shot and killed by night club owner Jack Ruby two days later, while under heavy police escort on a jail transfer. Much controversy remains concerning the Kennedy assassination, and speculation about conspiracy theories abounds, despite the Warren Commission’s conclusion that Oswald most likely acted alone. 

Nixon,  Richard (Milhous)  1913 - 1994: During his last election campaign, what first appeared as a minor burglary was to become the beginning of the end of Nixon's political career. A break-in at Democratic national headquarters in Washington, D.C.'s Watergate apartment complex was linked to Republicans. During the trial of six men charged in the crime, the existence of the cover-up began to emerge, taking government officials down like dominos in its path. Nixon elicited the resignation of two top aides in April 1973 in an effort to stem the tide. But in October, as the Watergate investigation continued, he lost his vice president, Spiro T. Agnew, who resigned before pleading "nolo contendere" (no contest) in federal charges of income tax evasion related to accusations of accepting bribes. 

Nixon's efforts to avoid the taint of those scandals were fruitless when subpoenaed tapes he was ordered to give up by the U.S. Supreme Court showed he obstructed justice in stopping an FBI probe of the Watergate burglary. On August 9, 1974, in national disgrace, he became the first President of the United States to resign. He boarded a plane with his wife and returned to his California home, ending his public career. A month later, in a controversial move, President Gerald Ford issued an unconditional pardon for any offenses Nixon might have committed while president. 

On April 22, 1994, Nixon died of a stroke, and a state funeral was held five days later in Yorba Linda, California. In 1995, film director Oliver Stone released the controversial movie Nixon; staring Academy Award winner Anthony Hopkins as the president.

PRESIDENTS (by Date of Service)
1789-1850
George Washington (1789-97)
John Adams (1797-1801)
Thomas Jefferson (1801-09)
James Madison (1809-17)
James Monroe (1817-25)
John Quincy Adams (1825-29)
Andrew Jackson (1829-37)
Martin Van Buren (1837-41)
William Henry Harrison (1841)
John Tyler (1841-45)
James Polk (1845-49)
Zachary Taylor (1849-50) 

1850-1901
Millard Fillmore (1850-53)
Franklin Pierce (1853-57)
James Buchanan (1857-61)
Abraham Lincoln (1861-65)
Andrew Johnson (1865-69)
Ulysses S. Grant (1869-77)
Rutherford B. Hayes (1877-81)
James A. Garfield (1881)
Chester A. Arthur (1881-85)
Grover Cleveland (1885-89)
Benjamin Harrison (1889-93)
Grover Cleveland (1893-97)
William McKinley (1897-1901) 

1901-2001
Theodore Roosevelt (1901-09)
William H. Taft (1909-13)
Woodrow Wilson (1913-21)
Warren Harding (1921-23)
Calvin Coolidge (1923-29)
Herbert Hoover (1929-33)
Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-45)
Harry S Truman (1945-53)
Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953-61)
John F. Kennedy (1961-63)
Lyndon B. Johnson (1963-69)
Richard M. Nixon (1969-74)
Gerald R. Ford (1974-77)
Jimmy Carter (1977-81)
Ronald W. Reagan (1981-89)
George Bush (1989-93)
William J. Clinton (1993-2001)
George W. Bush (2001-present)

 

Geography:

• Number of states: 50

• Area (1990): total: 3,717,796 sq mi (9,629,091 sq km)

• Population density (2000): 79.6 people per sq mi

• Northernmost point: Point Barrow, Alaska

• Easternmost point: West Quoddy Head, Maine

• Southernmost point: Ka Lae (South Cape), Hawaii

• Westernmost point: Cape Wrangell, Alaska

• Highest point: Mt. McKinley, Alaska (20,320 ft)

• Lowest point: Death Valley, Calif. (282 ft below sea level)

Population (Based on Census 2000 data):

• Total Resident Population 281,421,906

• Males: 138,053,563 (49.1% of pop.)

• Females: 143,368,343 (50.9% of pop.)

• White: 211,460,626 (75.1% of pop.)

• Black: 34,658,190 (12.3% of pop.) 

• Asian: 10,242,998 (3.6% of pop.)

• American Indian and Alaska Native: 2,475,956 (0.9% of pop.)

• Hispanic/Latino2: 35,305,818 (12.5% of pop.)

• Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander: 398,835 (0.1% of pop.)

American people are a very mixed culture. The people originate from many places, including Europe and Asia. Many Americans have links to the UK.

THE "STATES" OF THE UNITED STATES: There are 50 states in America. Each state is similar to the Provinces in China, except that each state is more like a separate country, with its own laws and cultures.

The 50 states are as follows:

Alabama, AL - (The Cotton State), Capital: Montgomery, Other Cities: Anchorage

Alaska, AK - (Land of the Midnight Sun), Capital: Junea

Arizona, AZ - (The Grand Canyon), State Capital: Phoenix

Arkansas, AR - (The Natural State), Capital: Little Rock

California, CA - (The Golden State), Capital: Sacramento, Major Cities: Berkeley, Los Angeles, San Diego, San Francisco

Colorado, CO - (The Centennial State), Capital: Denver

Connecticut, CT - (The Constitution State), Capital: Hartford

Delaware, DE - (The Diamond State), Capital: Dover

Florida, FL - (The Sunshine State), Capital: Tallahassee Other Cities: Miami, Orlando

Georgia, GA - (The Peach State), Capital: Atlanta

Hawaii, HI - (The Aloha State), Capital: Honolulu

Idaho, ID - (The Gem State), Capital: Boise

Illinois, IL - (The Prairie State), Capital: Springfield, Major City: Chicago

Indiana, IN - (The Hoosier State), Capital: Indianapolis

Iowa, IA - (The Hawkeye State), Capital: Des Moines

Kansas, KS - (The Sunflower State), Capital: Topeka, Major City: Wichita

Kentucky, KY - (The Bluegrass State), Capital: Frankfort

Louisiana, LA - (The Pelican State), Capital: Baton Rouge

Maine, ME - (The Pine Tree State), Capital: Augusta

Maryland, MD - (The Old Line State), Capital: Annapolis, Major City: Baltimore

Massachusetts, MA - (The Bay State), Capital: Boston

Michigan, MI - (The Wolverine State), Capital: Lansing, Major City: Detroit

Minnesota, MN - (The North Star State), Capital: St. Paul

Mississippi, MS - (The Magnolia State), Capital: Jackson

Missouri, MO - (The Show Me State), Capital: Jefferson City, Major Cities: Kansas City, St. Louis

Montana, MT - (The Treasure State), Capital: Helena

Nebraska, NE - (The Cornhusker State), Capital: Lincoln

Nevada, NV - (The Sagebrush State), Capital: Carson City, Major Cities: Las Vegas, Reno

New Hampshire, NH - (The Granite State), Capital: Concord

New Jersey, NJ - (The Garden State), Capital: Trenton, Major City: Atlantic City

New Mexico, NM - (The Land of Enchantment), Capital: Sante Fe

New York, NY - (The Empire State), Capital: Albany, Major City: New York City

North Carolina, NC - (The Tar Heel State), Capital: Raleigh

North Dakota, ND - (The Peace Garden State), Capital: Bismarck 

Ohio, OH - (The Buckeye State), Capital: Columbus, Major Cities: Cincinnati, Cleveland

Oklahoma, OK - (The Sooner State), Capital: Oklahoma City

Oklahoma City Convention & Visitors Bureau

Oregon, OR - (The Beaver State), Capital: Salem

Pennsylvania, PA - (The Keystone State), Capital: Harrisburg, Major Cities: Philadlephia, Pittsburgh

Rhode Island, RI - (The Ocean State) Capital: Providence

South Carolina, SC - (The Palmetto State), Capital: Columbia

South Dakota, SD - (The Coyote State), Capital: Pierre

Tennessee, TN - (The Volunteer State), Capital: Nashville, Other Cities: Memphis

Texas, TX - (The Lone Star State), Capital: Austin, Major Cities: Dallas, Houston

Utah, UT - (The Beehive State), Capital: Salt Lake City

Vermont, VT - (The Green Mountain State), Capital: Montpelier

Virginia, VA - (The Old Dominion State), Capital: Richmond

Washington, WA - (The Evergreen State), Capital: Olympia, Major City: Seattle

West Virginia, WV - (The Mountain State), Capital: Charleston

Wisconsin, WI - (The Badger State), Capital: Madison, Major City: Milwaukee

Wyoming, WY - (The Cowboy State), Capital: Cheyenne

The states all joined the United States of America at different times, the list below shows the dates each state joined:

 1. Delaware Dec. 7, 1787

 2. Pennsylvania Dec. 12, 1787 

 3. New Jersey Dec. 18, 1787

 4. Georgia Jan. 2, 1788

 5. Connecticut Jan. 9, 1788 

 6. Massachusetts Feb. 6, 1788 

 7. Maryland Apr. 28, 1788 

 8. South Carolina May 23, 1788 

 9. New Hampshire June 21, 1788 

10. Virginia June 25, 1788 

11. New York July 26, 1788

12. North Carolina Nov. 21, 1789 

13. Rhode Island May 29, 1790 

14. Vermont Mar. 4, 1791 

15. Kentucky June 1, 1792 

16. Tennessee June 1, 1796 

17. Ohio Mar. 1, 1803 

18. Louisiana Apr. 30, 1812 

19. Indiana Dec. 11, 1816 

20. Mississippi Dec. 10, 1817 

21. Illinois Dec. 3, 1818 

22. Alabama Dec. 14, 1819 

23. Maine Mar. 15, 1820 

24. Missouri Aug. 10, 1821

25. Arkansas June 15, 1836 

26. Michigan Jan. 26, 1837 

27. Florida Mar. 3, 1845 

28. Texas Dec. 29, 1845 

29. Iowa Dec. 28, 1846 

30. Wisconsin May 29, 1848 

31. California Sept. 9, 1850 

32. Minnesota May 11, 1858 

33. Oregon Feb. 14, 1859 

34. Kansas Jan. 29, 1861 

35. West Virginia June 20, 1863

36. Nevada Oct. 31, 1864 

37. Nebraska Mar. 1, 1867 

38. Colorado Aug. 1, 1876 

39. North Dakota Nov. 2, 1889 

40. South Dakota Nov. 2, 1889 

41. Montana Nov. 8, 1889 

42. Washington Nov. 11, 1889 

43. Idaho July 3, 1890 

44. Wyoming July 10, 1890 

45. Utah Jan. 4, 1896 

46. Oklahoma Nov. 16, 1907 

47. New Mexico Jan. 6, 1912 

48. Arizona Feb. 14, 1912

49. Alaska Jan. 3, 1959 

50. Hawaii Aug. 21, 1959

Other territory:

  Philippines2 1898

  Puerto Rico  1899

  Guam  1899

  American Samoa  1900 

  Canal Zone3  1904 

  Virgin Islands of U.S. 1917 

  Trust Territory of Pacific Islands4  1947 

  Northern Mariana Islands 1986

The first official national flag, also known as the Stars and Stripes, or Old Glory, was approved by the Continental Congress on June 14, 1777. The blue canton contained 13 stars, representing the original 13 colonies, but the layout varied. Although nobody knows for sure who designed the flag, it may have been Continental Congress member Francis Hopkinson.

After Vermont and Kentucky were admitted to the Union in 1791 and 1792, respectively, two more stars and two more stripes were added in 1795. This 15-star, 15-stripe flag was the “star-spangled banner” that inspired lawyer Francis Scott Key to write the poem that later became the U.S. national anthem.

In 1818, after five more states had gained admittance, Congress passed legislation fixing the number of stripes at 13 and requiring that the number of stars equal the number of states. The last new star, bringing the total to 50, was added on July 4, 1960, after Hawaii became a state.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNITED STATES: When Christopher Columbus travelled to America in 1492 there was a population of about 10-20 million, mainly from Asia, Europe and Africa, these people were given the name American Indians. With the expansion of Europe in the 16th century, more people migrated to the USA from European countries. When Christopher Columbus sailed from Spain to America he actually landed on one of the Bahama Islands in the Caribbean Sea. Because of the discovery Spain laid claim to the land and established a large empire in America.

In 1497 an Italian sailor, John Cabot, who was at the service of the English King, sailed to the are now called Canada, the English King then claimed the North Americas, were British settlements were established in the 17th century. There were 13 English colonies in what is now North America.

Over the next few centuries many English settlements were established in America. After a war between France and England in 1756 the land from Canada and North America was given to Britain. In 1775 the American War of Independence began which divided up the colonies into independent states. The War of Independence ended in 1781 when Britain recognised the independence of the United States and the Peace Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783.

THE 20th CENTURY: The beginning of the 20th century saw many people becoming wealthy, they spent their money on many things including cars. The most famous early 20th century car makers were Henry Ford, David Buick and Walter Chrysler. In Chicago and New York large skyscrapers were constructed. The Chrysler corporation built its new headquarters, the now famous Chrysler building, soon after in 1929 work began on the Empire State Building, the worlds tallest building for many years. The next few decades were difficult with the Great Depression, as the depression ended the US was taken into the Second World War. After the war black Americans fought for equal rights.

Later in the 20th Century America was opposing the USSR in the Cold War. US soldiers were involved in restricting soviet influences in Korea and in 1962 the US had soviet weapons removed from Cuba. America was also becoming involved in Vietnam. In the 1960's laws were enforced to allow equal rights for people of all ethnic minorities.

HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES AND CHINA: American trade with China increased in the 1890s. The United States had long demanded an Open Door Policy for trading in China, which was weak, in order to prevent other powers from carving up China among them. As its rivals made gains, the United States feared it would be excluded from all trade in China. In 1899 Secretary of State John Hay sent the European powers and Japan a series of "Open Door Notes," requesting agreement on three points. First, each power would respect the trading rights of the others within each nation’s sphere of influence; second, Chinese officials would collect import duties; and third, no nation would discriminate against the others in matters of harbor duties or railroad rates within each sphere of influence. Hay declared the principles accepted, inaccurately, since Russia and later Japan disagreed.

Not all the Chinese welcomed western penetration of their culture. In 1900 the Boxer Uprising broke out in China. The Boxers—a sect of Chinese nationalists who opposed foreign influence in China—rose up against foreign traders, officials, and missionaries, and massacred many of them. The United States and the European powers intervened with troops and put down the insurrection. The European powers seemed eager to carve up China, but Hay persuaded them to accept compensation to cover their losses. The United States returned part of its compensation to China. The McKinley administration had stopped Europe from carving up China.

The quest for an overseas empire in the late 1890s thus led to substantial American gains. The United States annexed Hawaii in 1898, conquered the Philippines and Guam from Spain in 1899, turned Cuba in effect into an American protectorate in 1901, and kept China opened to American traders and missionaries.

Meanwhile, in September 1901, an anarchist shot President McKinley, and Vice President  assumed the presidency. The United States now entered the 20th century and an era of reform.

TAKING NOTES: